Lecture 6. Subject: Culture in modern times

Plan
1. Culture of Europe in the XVII century: the struggle tradition and innovation in science, belief and art.
2. Spiritual and cultural transformation of Enlightenment, its artistic achievements.

Basic concepts: the first scientific revolution, freethinking, Baroque, Classicism, marynizm, the Netherlands and Flemish school of painting, opera music, rationalism, enlightenment ideology, the crisis of feudalism, liberal ideas, entsyklopedyzm, progressive bourgeois culture, sentimentalism, Romance literature, Viennese classical school, symphonic music, rococo, the bourgeois revolution.

6.1. XVII century was the epoch of great change in the development of the European continent and the peoples who inhabited it. It was then finally ends the Middle Ages and modern times begins. Central in this century have become such important events as the final phase of Discovery, the first scientific revolution, as well as social, bourgeois revolution in England. The result of these achievements was the creation of the world market, establishing among all continents regular economic relations, establishment of capitalist relations in Europe. Naturally, all these processes influenced the development in the XVII century. the whole of European culture, both material and spiritual.
It should be noted that among the various types of spiritual culture of a special place in the XVII century. took the science that not only was further productive development, but also committed a breakthrough, called in history the first scientific revolution. Its result was the formation of science and philosophy of modern times. However, as yet acted contradictory trends and old has been unwilling to give way for new, was a bitter struggle not only between the medieval and the new principles that born, between science and religion, but also between different religious directions, churches, denominations. Yes, a bold new look better representatives of spiritual culture were subjected to persecution, prosecution, rigid dogmatic criticism. Then he was burned at the stake Inquisition J. Bruno, exiled and forced to publicly renounce their views Galileo, subject to ban Spinoza - and this is not a complete list of afflictions, which were subjected to those ahead of his time. However, in this confrontation created true works of spiritual culture, and in its various branches - in philosophy, literature, painting, music, etc..
Art era marked significant achievements, and the prevailing artistic styles of this century were baroque and classicism. Baroque style existed in Europe from 1600 to 1750, he was a peculiar expression, beauty dynamics. Seeks to support the Roman Catholic Church in its struggle with the Reformation, Baroque art sought to directly influence the feelings of the audience. Painting, sculpture, decoration, architecture had to create a coherent dramatic effect. Style, which first appeared in the Roman churches, gradually conquering the whole of Europe, while acquiring new Fig. In Italy, the Baroque is represented in the painting by Caravaggio, in Flanders - works by Rubens, Van Dyck, Spain - paintings of Velazquez and Ribera, in the Netherlands - Rembrandt's masterpieces and Halsa. The architecture was replaced with straight lines and meandering broken, decor gained great importance and sophistication.Then carried out large-scale projects such as construction of St. Peter's Square in Rome (architect Bernini). Actually the term "Baroque" first used in the XIX century.known historian J. Burckhardt, but he took it in contemptuous sense - as "queer," "bizarre."
In the XVII century. When France established the unlimited power of the monarch, which peaked with Louis XIV, also formed a classicist trend that covered all types of art. Classicism, based on the submission of the principles of ancient art - rationalism, symmetry, determination, restraint and strict compliance meaning of his form, sought to express the sublime, heroic, high ethical ideals, a clear, organic images. At the same time classical bore the features of utopianism, idealization, abstrahovanosti, academic. In addition, the classical hierarchy of artistic genres found - high and low.Thus, in painting high genres recognized historical paintings, mythical, religious.Belonged to low landscape, portrait, still life, the same classification of genres followed in the literature. High considered a tragedy, epic, ode, and low - comedy, satire, fable.
By the time the general development of culture came forward France, world-class artists have given Spain, Holland, Flanders. In the musical creativity of this century, accounting for the formation of the doctrine of the harmony and the emergence of a new musical genre - opera, which was home to Italy. Italy and France, moreover, have been leaders in creating a beautiful architectural ensembles of the palace and park facilities.
In science a special place was taken by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), which is considered the creator of the first complete system of mechanistic materialism. Hobbes - is also one of the developers of the theory of the state by social contract, or contract theories of the state. According to this theory the state - the result of a sort of treaty which concluded the sovereign ruler and his subjects. According to Hobbes, an incentive to conclude such a treaty was the fear of aggression from other people fear for their life, liberty and property. The emergence of the state ended the natural state of "war of all against all", which took place, according to Hobbes, in pre-state period. Hobbes first opposed the idea of ​​divine origin of royal power. He outlined his theory in the main work "Leviathan."
In the XVII century. advanced bourgeois state in Europe was Holland, the most important center of European culture from the center of freethinking - Leiden University. Outstanding success achieved Dutch paintings, which feature development in the XVII century. was the predominance of easel painting and the lack of monumental decorative paintings. Center of attention of Dutch artists were man and nature, as the leading genre - residential painting, the landscape that was in the XVII century. independent genre. Among the prominent figures can be noted such as Frans Hals (1580-1666) - painter-portraitist, Jacob van Reysdal (1628-1682), which characterize the dramatic, poetic grandeur of nature disclosure. However, the top Dutch art XVII. reached in paintings by Rembrandt. His works are included in the treasury of world art. Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) - a brilliantly gifted artist, painter, etcher. In Rembrandt's paintings combined depth of the psychological characteristics of exceptional skill of painting. His art was innovative, it was remarkable vitality and democratic image. One of the most famous works by Rembrandt - "Night Watch" - a group portrait of a small company that goes to the protection of Amsterdam, and is not just a portrait, and the heroic image of the Netherlands revolution era. Thematically Rembrandt paintings are very diverse. It is religious ("Holy Family"), mythological ("This"), historical pictures, psychological portraits of people close to the artist his inner world. The greatest depth and subtlety characteristic of Rembrandt achieved his self-portraits. Recognized in perfect artistically famous painting genius "Prodigal Son". Rembrandt - etcher performed more than 2,000 unique images, not less important than his paintings. In general, the art of Rembrandt had a huge impact on the further development of the whole painting.
Holland gave the world the greatest philosopher - Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677), and materialist pantheist. He saw the world as a natural system that can be known. Nature - is the only eternal and infinite substance, the cause itself. For Spinoza man - is part of nature. In general doctrine Spinoza had a great influence on the development of atheism and materialism. According to freethinking in 1656 Spinoza was excommunicated from the religious community and subjected to a curse. His works are forbidden to publish, but his main work "Ethics" was issued only after the death of friends of Spinoza. Dutch scientist defended the need for strong government, which should be a champion of inalienable human rights - the rights of private property, freedom of conscience, freedom of thought. These ideas of Spinoza expressed in the "theological-political treatise."
Day became a phenomenon and ethnically close Flemish painting: famous artists of Flanders this time - a Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens and Snyders. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) possessed a versatile talent. Various subjects of his paintings (religious, mythological, allegories, landscapes, scenes of village life, portraits) are imbued with tremendous life-affirming principle. For the master characteristic is the combination of realistic observation and carnal beauty images, their drama. The most famous paintings of Rubens - "The construction of the Cross," "Descent from the Cross," "Perseus and Andromeda," "The history of Maria Medici," "Return of the reapers," self-portraits. On the history of art and entered the most famous pupil of Rubens - a brilliant portraitist Antonio van Dyck (1599-1641). He - by grand portraits of aristocrats, politicians, prelates of the church, rich burghers, local beauties, fellow artists. He has composed many portraits of members of the royal family. There is a Van Dyck and paintings on mythological and Christian stories, imbued with subtle lyricism. One of the greatest painters of Flanders - Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678). His large scale paintings depicting mythological, allegorical scenes of peasant life.Favourite genre of the artist - domestic picture. It Jordaens most fully expressed the national color and national type Flemings. Frans Snyders (1579-1657) became famous still lifes and hunting scenes. His still lifes monumental, decorative, colorful, beautifully painted Snyders gifts of nature - fish, meat, fruit, fur, feathers, animal fights.

Spain occupies in the history of painting XVII. special place: in this short historical period of time created great artists - Ribera, Surbaran, Velazquez, Kano. Prominent artist Diego Rodrigo de Silva Velazquez (1599-1660) almost did not write the paintings on religious subjects and themes. In '40 he was a court painter of the Spanish king in Madrid, where he created numerous portraits of members of the royal family and royal court. The historical canvas "Surrender Breda" he portrayed with a sense of dignity not only winners but also losers, that was the time for art innovation.Velazquez - a brilliant portraitist, who knows when brevity and monumentality, clearly present the diversity of images that are portrayed. In the treasury of world art for a color portrait of the skill became Pope Innocent X, in which the artist, using only two colors (white and red), with deep insight described the nature of this man. One of the famous paintings of Velazquez - naked female nature - "Venus with a mirror."Brushes are the master and landscapes, which by filling light and air have provided painting XIX century.
Pictures Husepe Ribera (1591-1652), his art is marked democratic character, imbued with knowledge of the life of its biblical and evangelical images filled with courage and dignity. The main subjects of paintings Surbarana Francisco (1598-1664) - religious. They have written a powerful and simple style often focus on a lone figure sincerely. Heat of colors combined with austerity, grandeur and simplicity of composition. Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1618-1682) - one of the founders of the academy of painting in Seville. In his works, with a sentimental tone, he portrayed, usually images of Madonna. Alonso Cano (1601-1667) - sculptor, painter and architect, representative of the Spanish Baroque.
One of the greatest playwrights of the XVII century. - Spaniard Pedro Calderon de la Barca (1600-1681). Although his work dominated the feudal-Catholic ideas, he showed deep social conflict and protest against the oppression of the people.Calderon - the author known worldwide brilliant comedies and plays Calderon and this day goes on theatrical stages worldwide.
Italy has its significant place in the culture period. In the XVII century. Rome became the center of the new style - Baroque. The process of transition to a whole architectural ensembles in which included not only individual buildings, squares, but the system of streets. In the process of changing accents - if initially decorated Baroque interior above the building, courtyard, Palace Park, in the late Baroque enhanced architectural decoration. The greatest architect of this century - Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), most of his creations - a grand colonnade of the Cathedral of St. Peter's Square in Rome. Bernini - a great sculptor, author of numerous sculptural portraits and full expression of his style and drama.
Italy was the country where a new genre of music - opera. Special place it occupies composer C. Monteverdi (1567-1643), who reached the true harmony of words and music. His opera ("Orpheus") and contributed to the establishment of this high genre.In 1637 in Venice opened the first public opera house "San Kassiano." There is a change topics operas - mythological scenes give way to historical, dramatic and heroic, sometimes intertwined with comedic and even farcical plot.
The economic stagnation that has had while Italy, reflected in the literature. In poetry ruled quirky style - marynizm by name Neapolitan poet D. Marino (1569-1625).However, advanced people of Italy defended the high art of civil time. In particular, Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639) - author of the novel "City of the sun, or the ideal republic." With relatively sharp satire of aristocratic style of speaking painter and poet Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). There was a genre parody, harlequin poems of attacks on church and aristocracy, the fashionable and marynizm academicism.
In the XVII century Art Germany experienced severe consequences caused to the country, its economy and culture of feudal reaction and Counter, which were followed after the Peasants' War of the XVI century. Architecture in Germany at the turn of XVI-XVII centuries. developed in the Baroque style with especially lush and complex it forms. In 1678 in Hamburg was opened the first permanent opera house, in general, in the German dominated genre of spiritual music concert of organ music. Developed as Clavier music genre with a leading suite.
The official line of French classicism in literature has been recognized since the formation in 1635, in Paris, the Academy of Literature. Ancestor of classical literature was Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), author of tragedies "Syd", "Horace," which glorified the power of will, guided by reason. Kornel is also the creator of French theater. The core of the plays of Corneille - tragic conflict of passion and duty, they are heroic characters and fighters from despotism. Examples of French prose became Francois de La Rochefoucauld works (1613-1680) and Marie Madeleine de Lafayet (1634-1693). Theoretical classical poet Nicolas Boileau served (1636-1711). Rules and regulations made by him in the classical treatise "Poetic Art". He - the witty author of "Satyr," which ridiculed religion and state officials. The greatest playwright of France - Jean Racine (1639-1699), author of many tragedies. Racine borrowed scenes from Greek mythology and created their works on all canons of classical Greek drama. In his plays, with exceptional musicality and harmony poem depicts acutely dramatic conflicts, emotional tragedy of people forced to bring their feelings in a public offering requirements of duty.
Huge impact on world drama had creativity Moliere (Jean Baptiste Poklen, 1622-1673), reformer theater, comedy, actor. The most important source of inspiration for him - a farcical drama. Based on a combination of classical and popular theater traditions Moliere created the genre of social comedy of everyday life. In his writings exposed treachery, inhumanity, slander, unequal marriages, meanness, venality, promiscuity, vanity. Great emotional, social and realistic visual concreteness has become satire in poetic fables greatest gift France - Jean La Fontaine (1621-1695).In his work he draws on ancient patterns and folk traditions. It works an absolute monarchy and aristocratic society compared with the realm of blood-thirsty and predatory animals, condemned church, religion and skepticism is assessed at the same time reveals the true humanity of people with people. At that time he lived and wrote his famous tale Charles Perrault (1628-1703). His collection "Tales of Mother Goose" includes the world-famous fairy tale "Sleeping Beauty," "Little Red Riding Hood," "Cinderella," "Puss in Boots."
The founder of classical painting - Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), who wrote the canvas and paintings on mythological and literary themes. Strict balance compositions, the cult of nature and worship of antiquity - the characteristics of the artist. The largest palace structure in architectural XVII. is Versailles. Palace built architects L. Left (1612-1670) and Jean Hardouin Mansart-(1646-1708). Creator parks of Versailles and the Tuileries - architect, master of landscape architecture Lenotr A. (1613-1700). In the XVII century. in France in the first place making the secular music, it begins to dominate the spiritual, dynamic opera and ballet. The first national operas were "Triumph of Love" and "Pastorale" and founder of the national school of opera is the composer and dancer ZH.B. Lully (1632-1687).

6.2. Enlightenment - is the ideological and social movement in Europe and America, associated with general changes in the conditions of life under the influence of feudal expansion and consolidation of capitalist relations. Conventionally, the historical framework of the Enlightenment may be limited 1640-1789 he was the first - is the date of British history, when in 1640-1660 he held antimonarchical, prorespublikanska and the bourgeois revolution in England. The second date - this is the beginning of the French bourgeois-democratic revolution, which was perceived by contemporaries as the epitome of educational ideas of freedom, equality, fraternity.
It should be noted that the period of the Enlightenment left immortal legacy in science, literature, art, politics, but mainly - in the history of social and political thought and social movement. Figures of the Enlightenment fought for the establishment of the "kingdom of reason" that should have ensured the development of objective knowledge and science. The basis of it was to be "natural equality", and hence would derive political freedom and civil equality. With all the diversity of opinions, most thinkers gathered in the assessment of the Enlightenment as a progressive, technologically advanced, innovative things. Kant understood the Enlightenment as an attempt to engage the human intellect, the mind in favor of moral and intellectual emancipation of individuals and Engels saw in it the ideological preparation for the bourgeois revolutions.

In terms of world outlook educator were materialists and idealists, proponents of rationalism (reason recognized basis of cognition and behavior), sensationalism (gave good sense) and even divine providence (hoping to God's will). Some of them believed in the inevitable progress of humanity, others saw history as social regression. As the trend of public opinion Enlightenment was still a certain unity. It meant in a particular state of mind, in the intellectual tendencies and similarities in key positions. This applies, above all, the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment, such as freedom, prosperity and happiness, peace, nonviolence, tolerance, and the famous vilnodumnist, critical to any authority, rejection of frozen dogma. Scientific knowledge was originally the property of a narrow circle of scientists, now greatly extended, going beyond universities and laboratories. It penetrated even in secular salons of London and Paris, became a subject of discussion not only scientists but also writers who have tried to express popular latest achievements of science.
Confidence in the power of human reason, in its infinite possibilities, in the progress of science, which will create conditions for economic and social well - that was the main spirit of the Enlightenment. Educator argued that the broad masses of the ruling monarchs of education will lead to the destruction of disempowerment and injustice.Themselves as educator came from different classes and states - from the aristocracy, nobility, clergy, trade and industrial circles, employees. In addition, each country bore the imprint of educational movement of national identity. Thus, in England in the XVII-XVIII centuries. After the revolution and civil wars, decreased slightly sharp contradictions in society, and development led to the strengthening of parliamentary forms of political struggle. English Church is not opposed to the Enlightenment itself and to some extent even meet his ideal of religious tolerance.This contributed to cultural development, as allowed to keep a balance between traditional values, which stood guard church, and innovative ideas that bore Enlightenment.
In its basic outline the political program of the English Enlightenment philosopher was formulated and liberal thinker John Locke (1632-1704). Its main work - "The experience of human understanding" - contained a positive program, perceive not only English but also French educator. To inalienable human rights, Locke believed, are the three basic rights - to life, liberty and property. The right to property it is closely linked with high estimation of human labor. Locke's belief close to the labor theory of value of Adam Smith. Locke, as well as representatives of classical bourgeois political economy, convinced that the property each person is the result of his work.The legal equality of individuals is a necessary consequence of compliance with the three inalienable rights. Like most educator, Locke comes from the idea of ​​inalienable rights of individuals and their private interests, police must ensure that benefit everyone, but to also comply with the freedom and the private interest of others. In general, the Enlightenment contributed to consolidation in the British national character traits such as enterprise, ingenuity, empiricism.
On the Scottish Enlightenment had a profound impact activities Philosophical Society in Edinburgh, which brought together the best minds of that time, including David Hume (1711-1776) and Adam Smith (1723-1790). Prominent theorist commodity-money relations Adam Smith was hot and advocate advocate of new values. In his theory, he assigned a great place to market, believing that the market is freed man from otuplyayuchoyi system dependencies in feudalism.
Especially powerful was a bright and Enlightenment in France. Just to list a few names of its leaders - a prominent representatives of French culture, such as Voltaire (1694-1778), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Denis Diderot (1713-1784), Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755), Paul Henri Holbah (1723-1789), Georges Louis de Byuffon (1697-1788). In France, the educator were set very strongly that entailed in their environment, political radicalism, messianic sentiments and opposition to the existing order. Sometimes they protest acquired forms of atheism, sometimes it occurs in the idealization of the past, for example, the republican system of ancient states. With the name of Rousseau is connected a stage in the development of educational movement of France, in particular case of a radical revision of some of its fundamental goals and ideals. Radicalism Rousseau was based on his moral convictions, he demanded obedience person the benefit of society.
French educator entered history as a scholar, the creators of French explanatory dictionary or encyclopedia of sciences, arts and crafts, which launched a new era in the knowledge of nature and society. Organizer and editor of the Encyclopedia, Diderot, was a staunch opponent of absolutism, churches, clerical. Age of Enlightenment in France, sometimes called the age of Voltaire. Voltairian criticism of absolutism, the glorification of reason, the struggle for tolerance made it to the disgraced French royal court. In his historical works he first presented history not as a description of the fate of the state and its rulers, but as most developing nations, their economy, science, culture and politics. The purpose of either form should be the preservation of freedom on the basis of law, balance the interests of different social groups to ensure stability of the state, to introduce the principle of separation of powers in the state - these were the main provisions of the treatise "The Spirit of Laws" is a classic French Enlightenment W. L. Montesquieu.
An outstanding representative of German Enlightenment was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Work brought him glory "Observations on the feeling of beauty and the sublime." Beautiful and uplifting it is for the core, for which he nanyzuye their observations about the human in man. The object of theoretical philosophy, Kant, should not be learning the same things by itself - nature, peace, rights, and research activities, establishing laws of human reason and its limits. Kant also analyzes and summarizes the main ideas of the Enlightenment, which seeks to free people from the oppression and encourages them to ensure that the measure was making their own mind. Especially significant is the contribution to the development of Kant's theory of law. He justified the legal forms and methods of struggle for change in public and social order, providing the path of gradual reform and eliminate violence. It is no accident in Germany XVIII century. called the "century of Kant."
Disagreements educator, connected by common goals and ideals, has become a prerequisite for exceptional fertility of their creative activity. In the endless discussions between them were born the modern concept of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, rule of law and separation of power, economy and ethics of individualism. In attempt to neglect this heritage of peoples of many countries, as witnessed further development of events and historical experience, paid their freedom and material and spiritual losses.
It should be emphasized that the XVIII century has also prepared a more progressive domination of bourgeois culture. The old feudal ideology, it's time to philosophers, sociologists, economists, writers of the new generation of Enlightenment. Aesthetic innovation century manifested itself not so much the desire to break down or reconstruct traditional forms, but in creating some other forms that exist outside the tradition, as if independently of it. European art of the XVIII century. connecting a classicism and romanticism. Romanticism that emerged in the atmosphere is permeated with ideas of the Enlightenment, the revolutionary events, the first plan put imagination, emotion and creative inspiration of the artist. Using the old style forms of classicism, the Enlightenment art reflected through them are completely different meaning. In the art of different countries and peoples of classicism and romanticism is a synthesis of form, it exists in various combinations and blending.
An important new factor in the art of the XVIII century. was the emergence of trends that had their own stylistic forms and did not have the need for its development. That most of influences was primarily sentimentalism (from Fr. - Sense), which fully reflected the educational idea of ​​the original purity and goodness of human nature that is lost along with the distance of society from nature. In the diaries, novels, letters, poetry writers sentimentalist analyzed naytonkishi shades of feelings and moods.
In the European art of the XVIII century. was another original, unique direction - Rococo. He was characterized by lightness, grace, elegance and whimsical ornamental rhythm. All rococo art based on asymmetry, which creates a specific feeling - playful, sarcastic, weird, irritating others. It is no accident origin of the term "Rococo" deceive the French word "rokayl" (literally the diamond and jewelry from shells), which indicates the style of interior decoration, based on S-shaped curves and spyralepodibnyh forms. Rococo was the leading areas of art in France in the XVIII century. And subsequently became widespread in Europe, especially in temples and palaces of southern Germany and Austria.
The development of European art of the XVIII century. was, however, difficult and uneven. Yes, in Italy the excellence associated with the Venetian school, in France, traces the evolution of the Rococo to the art software and civic orientation. In art, literature and especially in England have originated features of realism. Young Francisco Goya (1746-1828) in Spain with all his creative work preparing a new century romanticism. The most valuable legacy of the XVIII century. were laid in it the basis of aesthetics and art criticism as a reliable scientific discipline, development of which is closely linked to the success of philosophy.

The main literary genres of the Enlightenment had an affair. The success of the novel, especially significant in England, was prepared by the previous success of educational journalism. Writers-educator perfectly aware of how imperfect they are a modern society and how evil is man, and yet they hoped that, like Robinson Crusoe in Daniel Defoe's novel (1660-1731) humanity, relying on his intellect and diligence, come on peaks of civilization, where it awaits happiness. But, perhaps, and this hope was illusory, as clearly evidenced Jonathan Swift (1667-1754) in his book "Gulliver Travels", when sending his hero to the island of intelligent horses. Sorrow and laughter - the distinctive features of his work.
Deploying in their positive program books, writers era invariably combined moral ideal of acute and witty satire. In his novels of English writer G. Fielding often resorted to constructing a parallel plot that resembles a fairy-tale: the good and bad brothers, each of which eventually given on merit. For the first time in English literature Fielding (1704-1754) demonstrated the possibility of creating impressive images, plot development, shrewd observation. With all theoretical thoroughness upbringing presented in treatises J.-J. Rousseau (1712 - 1778) and in his novel "Julia, or the New Eloise" and "Emile, or On Education." An example of all good and fine for a nature educator. A true sentimentalist create her cult in the 60 years of the XVIII century. But capturing nature, observing it begins with the Enlightenment itself. It was a new ideological, philosophical beliefs, when ideas are not only expressed in the treatises, but also easily passed in the novel, inspired poets and ospivuvalysya them.
At the end of XVII-early XVIII century. composed the music starts and the language and then speak the whole of Europe. The first was the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and Georg Friedrich Handel (1685-1759). The great German composer and organist Bach worked in all musical genres except opera - he is an unsurpassed master of polyphony. His orchestral music includes concertos for violin and keyboard instruments, orchestral suites. Much was the music of Bach for the clavier and organ, his fugue and chorale. Like Bach, Handel uses biblical stories to their works. His most famous works - the oratorio "Saul", "Israel in Egypt", "Messiah." In general, Handel wrote 40 operas, and many organ concertos, sonatas, suites.
A huge influence on European art music made Viennese classical school and its greatest masters - Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Viennese classics reinterpreted and brought resound anew all music genres and forms. "Father of the symphony" called Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), teacher of Mozart and Beethoven. He created more than 100 symphonies. Underlying many of them - the subject of folk songs and dances, which the composer worked with amazing art. The top of his work - "12 London symphonies", written during the composer's triumphal tour to England in the 90th Haydn wrote a number of great quartets and sonatas, more than 20 operas, 14 months, a large number of songs and other works proved to classical perfectionsymphony, quartet, sonata. At the end of career, he created two monumental oratorio - "The Creation" and "Seasons", which expressed the opinion about the grandeur of the universe and human life. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) in childhood impressed remarkable abilities: he was a virtuoso performer, was in a large number of music. Unusual abilities Wolfgang developed under the guidance of his father - violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. In 1781 Mozart lived in Vienna, here comes the bloom of his creative genius. In the opera "Marriage of Figaro," "Don Giovanni," "Magic Flute" by Mozart with amazing skill and creates a variety of live human characters, shows life in its contrasts, moving from joke to the deep seriousness of fun - to fine poetic lyrics. These same traits are typical of his symphonies, sonatas, concerts, quartets, in which he creates higher classical examples of genres. Vertices of classical symphonic began his three symphonies (of Mozart were written about 50): "Mi flat major» (№ 39) - life full of joy, play, fun dance movement "in G minor» (№ 40) - deep lyrical poetry movement of the human soul, her dramatic aspirations, "in C major» (№ 41), contemporaries called "Jupiter" - covers the entire world with its contrasts and contradictions, utverdzhuyuchy wisdom and harmony of his system.Mozart's music reveals the highest achievement for the perfection of classical melodies and forms.
"Music should cut down fire from human hearts," - said Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), whose work belongs to the highest achievements of human genius. Man republican views, he affirmed the dignity of the person of the artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. This is his only opera "Fidelio" overture and "Egmont", "Leonora," "Korialan" piano sonata number 23 ("Appasyonata"). The conquest of freedom as a result of hard fighting - a main idea of ​​his work. All mature Beethoven's creative life is connected with Vienna, where he is a young man took his playing of Mozart, Haydn was engaged in, where he became famous as a pianist. Lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth ("Lunar") and the seventeenth sonatas depicting the despair of the composer in the most difficult period of life when Beethoven was close to suicide due to loss of hearing. But the crisis has been overcome: the emergence of the Third ("Heroic") Symphony marked the victory of human will. In the period from 1803 to 1813 he created most of his symphonic works. Attracted the composer and chamber genres. Beethoven sought to penetrate the innermost depths of man's inner world. Apotheosis of his work - Ninth ("Moral") Symphony and the Grand Mesa. Ninth Symphony shyllerovskoyi includes an excerpt from "Ode to Joy", the chosen anthem of Europe.
Fine art of XVIII century. the best analysis of his works inherent subtle human emotions, playing nuances of feelings and moods. Intimacy, lyricism images, analytical observation - characteristic features of art of the XVIII century. These properties of artistic perception of life had a significant impact on the development of world culture.
Italian Art of the XVIII century reached its peak only in Venice. Expresses the spirit of Venice, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was (1696-1770), the greatest Italian painter of the XVIII century. One of the first representatives of the Italian Rococo. Tiepolo are giant-scale paintings as religious and secular paintings. His works feature lightweight dynamic style, they are filled with light and warmth. A great artist and portraitist Thomas Gainsborough was (1727-1788). Portrait images of the artist, often in the background soft idyllic landscape, characterized by mental sophistication, spirituality and poetry. It is remarkable that this genre is best placed in the walls of the Royal Academy of Art (opened in 1768), one of the members and founders of which was Gainsborough. The artist was the first British artists began to follow the realistic tradition in landscape painting.
In the first half of XVIII century when such force was a process of exclusion of religious secular culture, a leading trend in the art of French XVIII century became the Rococo. The subjects of paintings of artists - only love, erotic, favorite heroine - nymphs, Bacchante, Diana, Venus. Rococo painter was Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684-1721). He has designed and developed a new genre paintings - gallant holidays: bizarre scenes that depict elegantly dressed young people close to nature ("sailing to the island Kyferu"). A worthy representative of the French rococo was Francois Boucher (1703-1770). "The first artist King ', Director of the Academy, Bush was a true son of his age, all he could do: panels for hotels, pictures of the rich homes and palaces, cardboard for the manufactory of tapestries, stage sets, book illustrations, images, fan, wallpapers, carriages, sketches of costumes. Typical subjects of his paintings - "Triumph of Venus" or "Toilet of Venus," "Venus with Cupid," "Diana Bathing". Pictures of frivolous subjects, often erotic ("Swing"), wrote Jean-Honore Fragonard (1732-1806), a leading representative of the Rococo. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828) - True historiographer French society, delivered in his sculptural portrait gallery of the spiritual atmosphere of his era. His "Voltaire" - evidence of a high level of French art.
The attraction of fine arts and literature explaining its convergence with the theater.XVIII century is often called "Golden Age Theater." The theater was designed over time to perform a variety of tasks. Write about people in ordinary circumstances meant to write about life at the same time that shaped these people. For playwrights Enlightenment came out of great social and human ideals and strongly not taken anything that was contrary to them. The greatest playwright of England of XVIII century.was Richard Sheridan (1751-1816). His satirical comedy directed against the immorality of high society, Puritan hypocrisy of bourgeois.
Once a great trading power, Venice experiencing in the XVIII century. economic decline, but it is not only preserved, but also managed to develop their culture. In this small town there were seven theaters - as much as in Paris and London combined. At the carnival would come to Venice from all over Europe. In this city did Carlo Goldoni (1707-1793), who made 267 dramatic works, but glorified his best comedy - "Traktyrschytsya" and "Servant of Two Masters."
In France, the highest embodiment of the comedy of manners that has reached absolute maturity, was "The Marriage of Figaro" by the great French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais (1732-1799). Figaro was the personification of the whole people opposition to the old regime, the same opposition that led to revolution. No wonder two people so hated the play - Louis XVI, who lived in fear of revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte, who built his empire on the ruins of a revolutionary way.

Country where "serious genre," as he was known in the XVIII century. And then the tragedy made the greatest progress was Germany. Although the House of Enlightenment in Germany appears only in the mid 50s of the XVIII century. (Forty-fifty years later than in England and France), but by taking the experience of predecessors, gives excellent results. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was a theorist of visual and dramatic arts, the creator of the great plays. In the essay "Hamburg Dramaturgy" he interprets in his own criticism of Aristotle and frozen forms of classical French drama, contrasting their approach to free Shakespeare and utverdzhuyuchy right to be third class protagonists. Aesthetic works Lessing had resonance in all European countries. The writer, considered Lessing, depict life in motion, in the struggle.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832), "universal genius", scientist, theorist and art connoisseur, the novelist, the great poet and a great playwright, as if he embodied in himself the whole culture of Germany. The play "Egmont" - one of the best theatrical creations of Goethe. The biggest goal is, for Goethe, in asserting humanity, which is the embodiment of Egmont. In Germany, education loving human being was a revolutionary task. This task, and devoted himself to Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) - scholar, historian and aesthetic, the great poet and playwright. On creativity Schiller made a huge impact Enlightenment literature. The desire for freedom, affirmation of human dignity seen already in his earliest works - the drama "Robbers". Drama "Intrigue and Love" Schiller as if one sums up the main lines of the XVIII century drama. and opens a new way of drama. After all, theater is the XX century., Found in the works of Schiller in many respects a new approach, says its important, modern author. Interest in the strong character and social upheaval identified intense dramatic tragedies Schiller, their relevance at all times.
French revolution and caused her social and political upheavals on the verge of XVIII-XIX centuries. Europe shook the faith educator in the possibility of gradual non-violent progress. For these events, educational movement polityzuvavsya and quickly split into separate groups and movements. The crisis deepened Enlightenment and the conservative critique of its goals and ideals. Educator accused that they have in mind and consciousness of human confusion, and in society - the confusion that violated the natural, organic development of countries and peoples. From these attacks Enlightenment is not passed, it suddenly rose from center stage of history, forcing generations to wonder what was in his historic appointment. The result of the Enlightenment era sums JW Goethe in tragedy "Faust" when evaluating a new historical type of person that is looking for hard truth based on reason and believe in their creative work. However, with this creative and effective personality sometimes brutally wrong and is often helpless in front of her caused same to the powerful forces of life. Overall, it was a century of large developments and discoveries, but at the same time and large errors. However, the cultural heritage of the XVIII century. and this day affects the extraordinary diversity, wealth of genres and styles, deep comprehension of human passions, great optimism, faith in man and its best quality.

Questions for self-control:
1. What are the key social and political changes took place in the world in modern times?
2. In countries where the Enlightenment has become the largest distribution?
3. What types and genres of art are inherent in this era of Enlightenment?
4. Name the major artistic styles and trends of the historical period.
5. What processes are called the first scientific revolution?
6. What school of painting and music gave the most talented artists of the day?

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