Synchrony and Diachrony in Language History

Some theoretical aspects of language history

The evolution or historical development of language is made up of diverse facts and process. In the first place, it includes the internal or structural development of the language system, its various subsystems and component parts. The description of internal linguistic history is usually presented in accordance with the division of language into linguistic levels. The main, commonly accepted levels are the phonetic and phonological levels, the morphological level, the syntactic level, and the lexical level. Accordingly, the history of the language can be subdivided into historical phonetics (phonology), historical morphology, historical syntax and historical lexicology.

The evolution of language includes also many facts which pertain to the functioning of language in the speech community. These functional aspects constitute what is known as the ‘external’ history of the language and embrace a large number of diverse matters: the spread of the language in geographical and social space, the differentiation of language into functional varieties (geographical variants, dialects, standard and sub-standard forms, etc.), contacts with other languages. Most of these features are connected with the history of the speech community, e.g. with the structure of society, the migration of tribes, economic and political events, the growth of culture and literature. (Note 5. Diversification of Languages.)

It goes without saying that language does not change rapidly: there are certain properties in any language that are preserved at any period of its development: the division into vowels and consonants, the distinction between main parts of speech and parts of the sentence. As for English, for instance, some parts of its vocabulary have come down to us, as well as most of the pronouns, many form-words and words indicating basic concepts of life. Many ways of word-formation have remained historically stable, and some grammatical categories (number in nouns, degrees of comparison in adjectives) have undergone little change, while other categories, such as case and gender, have changed considerably. The fact is that the proportion of statics and dynamics in language varies at different historical periods and at different linguistic levels. But still we can always find statics and dynamics both in synchrony and diachrony. Of course, to trace the changes taking place in a language, we are to consider them diachronically. And here we are face with such a notion as linguistic change.

Linguistic changes can be classified in accordance with linguistic levels, such as phonetic and phonological changes, spelling changes, grammatical changes, including morphology and syntax, lexical and stylistic changes. At these levels further subdivisions are possible: phonetic changes include vowel and consonant changes, qualitative and quantitative changes, positional and independent changes and so on. But every separate change enters a larger frame and forms a part of the development of a certain system. In other words, the alternation of one element is part of the alternation of the entire system as it reveals a re-arrangement of its structure, a change in the relationships of its components. For example, in the late 16^th – early 17^th century in certain phonetic conditions the sonorant [r] changed into [a] giving rise to diphthongs: bear, beer, poor, etc.; the new set of diphthongs with a central glide [ia], [ea], [ua] introduced new distinctive features into the system of vowel phonemes.

Linguistic changes are usually slow and gradual. They proceed in minor imperceptible steps unnoticed by the speakers. The rate of linguistic change is restricted by the communicative function of language, for a rapid change would have disturbed or hindered communication between speakers of different generations.

As was said above, at some historical periods linguistic changes are more intensive and more rapid than at others. For example, changes in vocabulary are more pronounced that, say, changes in grammar or phonetics as they are easier to observe as new words or groups of words spring into being before our eyes. But new words, unless they are borrowings or loan words, are built in conformity with the existing ways of word-formation which are very slow to change. That is they make use of available elements: roots, affixes and follow the productive word-building patterns already existing in the language. For example, hotel – motel, alcoholic – workaholic, manuscript – tapescrip t, and so on. If the number of words is very large, it takes them several hundred years to be adopted and assimilated. For example, French borrowings of the Middle Ages.

As far as the system of phonemes is concerned, it cannot be subjected to sudden or rapid changes either, since it must preserve the opposition between the phonemes required for the distinction of morphemes. Sometimes phonetic changes affect a whole set of phonemes – a group of vowels or a group of consonants – but, as a rule, they do not impair the differentiation of phonemes, and consequently, communication.

Likewise, the grammatical system is very slow to change. Being the most abstract of linguistic levels, it must provide stable formal devices for arranging words into classes and for connecting them into phrases and sentences.

Synchronic variation.

A linguistic change begins with a synchronic variation, that is, along with the existing language units (words, forms, affixes, pronunciations, spellings, and syntactic constructions) here appear new units. They may be similar in meaning but slightly different in form, stylistic connotations, social values, etc. In the same way new meanings may arise in the existing words or forms in addition to their main meanings. Both kinds of variations, formal (in form) and semantic (in meaning), supply the so-called raw material for impending changes.

Synchronic variation is to be found in every language at every stage of its history. It is caused by two main factors: functional differentiation of language and tendencies of historical development.

As is known, language functions in various forms as a group of mutually intelligible overlapping speech varieties. The range of synchronic variation largely depends on the distinction of the main functional varieties and also on the variable use of language in different conditions of communication, in various social groups and in individual forms of speech. Synchronic differences between the varieties of language may consist of specific items not to be found in other varieties, or in the different use of the same items, which may seem slightly unusual and yet quite intelligible to the speakers of other varieties.

Synchronic variation reveals the tendencies of historical development and is produced by those tendencies. New features, which appear as instances of synchronic variation, represent dynamics in synchrony and arise in conformity with productive historical trends.

Variation supplies material for linguistic change and also provides conditions for its realization. At every period of history, language offers a wide choice of expressive means to the speaker. From this stock the speaker selects forms of expression suitable in the given situation; in making this choice he observes the speech habits of his social group or employs forms of expression current in other varieties of the language; sometimes he creates new expressive means – forms, words, phrases – in accordance with the productive historical tendencies. Old and new forms begin to be used indiscriminately, in free variation, which may lead to a change in their relative frequencies and finally to the substitution of one for another. This synchronic variation ensures a gradual imperceptible realization of the change. If the co-existing competing units lose all differences, one rival will die out and the other will occupy its place (for only in rare cases genuine free variation exists for long, that is, co-existence of absolute equivalents). If the differences between parallel means of expression persist and are accentuated, both rivals will survive as distinct units.

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