Lecture 4/5

Note 3

Note 2

Note 1

Netherlandic (Netherlandish) is a West Germanic language that is the national language of The Netherlands and, with French, one of the two official languages of Belgium. Although speakers of English usually call the Netherlandic of The Netherlands “Dutch” and the Netherlandic of Belgium “Flemish,” they are actually the same language. Netherlandic, which occurs in both standard and dialectal forms, is the language of most of The Netherlands, of northern Belgium, and of a relatively small part of France along the North Sea, immediately to the west of Belgium. Netherlandic is also used as the language of administration in Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. Afrikaans, which is a derivative of Netherlandic, is one of the official languages of South Africa. The spoken language exists in a great many varieties ranging from Standard Netherlandic, or “General Cultured Netherlandic”)—the language used for public and official purposes, including instruction in schools and universities—to the local dialects that are used among family, friends, and others from the same village (these exist in far more variety than does the English of North America). Standard Netherlandic is characterized grammatically by the loss of case endings in the noun. In Belgium efforts were made to give Netherlandic equal status with French, which had assumed cultural predominance during the period of French rule (1795–1814). In 1938 Netherlandic was made the only official language of the northern part of Belgium. The use of Standard Netherlandic together with the local dialect is much more widespread among the people of The Netherlands than it is in Belgium. The dialects of the area bounded roughly by Amsterdam, The Hague, and Rotterdam are closer to Standard Netherlandic than are those of the other dialect areas. Together with English, Frisian, and German, Netherlandic is a West Germanic language. It derives from Low Franconian, the speech of the Western Franks, which was restructured through contact with speakers of North Sea Germanic along the coast (Flanders, Holland) in the period around AD 700. The earliest documents in the Netherlandic language date from approximately the end of the 12th century, although a few glosses, names, and occasional words appeared somewhat earlier.

a Christian heresy first proposed early in the 4th century by the Alexandrian presbyter Arius. It affirmed that Christ is not truly divine but a created being. Arius' basic premise was the uniqueness of God, who is alone self-existent and immutable; the Son, who is not self-existent, cannot be God. Because the Godhead is unique, it cannot be shared or communicated, so the Son cannot be God. Because the Godhead is immutable, the Son, who is mutable, being represented in the Gospels as subject to growth and change, cannot be God. The Son must, therefore, be deemed a creature who has been called into existence out of nothing and has had a beginning. Moreover, the Son can have no direct knowledge of the Father since the Son is finite and of a different order of existence

.According to its opponents, especially the bishop Athanasius, Arius' teaching reduced the Son to a demigod, reintroduced polytheism (since worship of the Son was not abandoned), and undermined the Christian concept of redemption since only he who was truly God could be deemed to have reconciled man to the Godhead.

also called futhark writing system of uncertain origin used by Germanic peoples of northern Europe, Britain, Scandinavia, and Iceland from about the 3rd century to the 16th or 17th century AD. Runic writing appeared rather late in the history of writing and is clearly derived from one of the alphabets of the Mediterranean area. Because of its angular letter forms, however, and because early runic inscriptions were written from right to left like the earliest alphabets, runic writing seems to belong to a more ancient system. Scholars have attempted to derive it from the Greek or Latin alphabets, either capitals or cursive forms, at any period from the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. A likely theory is that the runic alphabet was developed by the Goths, a Germanic people, from the Etruscan alphabet of northern Italy and was perhaps also influenced by the Latin alphabet in the 1st or 2nd century BC. Two inscriptions, the Negau and the Maria Saalerberg inscriptions, written in Etruscan script in a Germanic language and dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, respectively, give credence to the theory of Etruscan origins for runic. There are at least three main varieties of runic script: Early, or Common, Germanic (Teutonic), used in northern Europe before about 800 AD; Anglo-Saxon, or Anglian, used in Britain from the 5th or 6th century to about the 12th century AD; and Nordic, or Scandinavian, used from the 8th to about the 12th or 13th century AD in Scandinavia and Iceland. After the 12th century, runes were still used occasionally for charms and memorial inscriptions until the 16th or 17th century, chiefly in Scandinavia. The Early Germanic script had 24 letters, divided into three groups, called Fttir, of 8 letters each. The sounds of the first six letters were f, u, th, a, r, and k, respectively, giving the alphabet its name: futhark. The Anglo-Saxon script added letters to the futhark to represent sounds of Old English that did not occur in the languages that had used the Early Germanic script. Anglo-Saxon had 28 letters, and after about 900 AD it had 33. There were also some slight differences in letter shape. The Scandinavian languages were even richer in sounds than Old English; but, instead of adding letters to the futhark to represent the new sounds, the users of the Nordic script compounded the letter values, using the same letter to stand for more than one sound—e.g., one letter for k and g, one letter for a, F, and o. This practice eventually resulted in the reduction of the futhark to 16 letters. Other varieties of runes included the Halsinge Runes (q.v.), the Manx Runes, and the stungnar runir, or “dotted runes,” all of which were variants of the Nordic script. More than 4,000 runic inscriptions and several runic manuscripts are extant. Approximately 2,500 of these come from Sweden, the remainder being from Norway, Denmark and Schleswig, Britain, Iceland, various islands off the coast of Britain and Scandinavia, and other countries of Europe, including France.

Theme 3: Historical Conditions for the Development of the English Language

1. Early history of the British Isles (See Table 1)

To begin with, it should be said that archeological research has uncovered many layers of prehistoric population on the territory of the British Isles.

According to historians, the first people to have inhabited the British Isles were Iberians, the inhabitants of the peninsula in southwestern Europe, occupied by modern Spain and Portugal. It was the Greeks who called them so, probably after the Ebro (Iberus), the peninsula's second longest river (after the Tagus).

But the earliest people whose linguistic affiliation has been established were the Celts (Note 1). They came to Britain in three waves and immediately preceded the Teutons. Economically and socially the Celts were a tribal society made up of kins, kinship groups, clans and tribes; they practiced a primitive agriculture and traded with Celtic Gaul (modern France).

Normally, modern Celtic languages are divided into 2 groups, Gallo-Breton and the Gaelic. The former include Gallic, which was spoken in Gaul, and British represented by Welsh (Cymry) spoken in Wales, then Cornish in Cornwall (extinct since 18^th c.), and Breton in Brittany. The latter comprise Irish, Highland Scots (Erse), and Manx, spoken on the Isle of Man by a few hundred people.

In the 1^st century B.C Gaul was occupied by the Romans who had known about insular Celts from Pytheas’s records (s ee Lecture 2). Having occupied the country, Caesar made two raids on Britain, in 55 and 54 B.C. Although he failed to subjugate the Celts, Roman economic penetration to Britain grew. But it wasn’t until A.D. 43 that the country’s conquest and Romanisation started.

The Roman occupation lasted nearly 400 years and came to an end in the early 5^th century A.D. when the Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain due to internal and external causes.

After the departure of the Romans, Britain remained unprotected from numerous enemies surrounding it such as the Picts and Scots from Scotland and Ireland and Germanic tribes from the mainland which made piratical raids on the British shores. Besides, the Britons fought among themselves which also weakened the country. So it is quite natural that they were unable to offer resistance to the enemies that attacked them in the middle of the 5^th c. A.D.

According to Venerable Bede (673-735), an ancient monastic scholar and historian who wrote the first history of Britain (Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum), the invaders came to Britain in A.D. 449 under the leadership of two Germanic kings, Hengist and Horsa; they had been invited by a British king as assistants and allies in a local war. The newcomers soon dispossessed their hosts, and other Germanic people followed. They came in multitude, in families and clans, to settle in the occupied territories.

According to Bede, the ‘newcomers were of three strongest races of Germany, the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes (and also Frisians). It is uncertain whether they belonged to different tribes or perhaps constituted two mixed waves of invaders differing mainly in the place and time of arrival. They were called Angles and Saxons by the Romans and by the Celts but preferred to call themselves Angelcyn (English people) and applied this name to the conquered territories: Angelcynnes land (land of the English), hence England.

The conquerors settled in Britain in the following way: the Jutes or Frisians settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight; the Saxons occupied territories south of the Thames and some stretches north of it, and depending on location were called South Saxons, West Saxons and East Saxons (late also Mid Saxons). The Saxons consolidated into a number of petty kingdoms, the largest and most powerful of which was Wessex, the kingdom of West Saxons. The last people to settle in Britain were the Angles which occupied most of the territory north of the Thames up to the Firth of Forth, namely the districts between the Wash and the Humber, and to the North of Humber. They founded large kingdoms which absorbed their weaker neighbours: East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria

Since the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain the ties of their language with the continent were broken, and its further development went its own ways. It is at this time, the 5^th century that the history of the English language begins. The Anglos-Saxons occupied the territory of modern England and part of Scotland while Wales, Ireland, the Scottish Highlands and Cornwall remained Celtic.

Old English Kingdoms and Dialects

The Germanic tribes founded seven separate kingdoms, which during four centuries struggled with one another for supremacy. They were Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria, which consisted of two parts, Bernicia and Deira. In this prolonged struggle it was sometimes Kent, or Northumbria and sometimes Mercia that would take the upper hand (pre-written history) and Wessex (the period of written records) (Note 2). In 828 the struggle came to an end with the decisive victory of Wessex. Ecgbert, king of Wessex, subdued Mercia and Northumbria. Since then kings of Wessex became kings of England, and the capital of Wessex, Winchester, became the capital of England.

The Germanic tribes spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the West Germanic subgroup. Their common origin and their separation from other related tongues as well as their joint evolution in Britain transformed them eventually into a single tongue, English. Yet, at the early stages of their development in Britain the dialects remained disunited. On the one hand, the OE dialects acquired certain common features which distinguished them from continental Germanic tongues; on the other hand, they displayed growing regional divergence. The feudal system was setting in, and the dialects were entering a new phase; tribal dialectal division was superceded by geographical division, in other words, tribal dialects were transformed into local or regional dialects.

There were four main dialects spoken at that time in Britain: Kentish, the dialect developed from the tongue spoken by the Jutes and Frisians; West Saxon, the main dialect of the Saxon group, spoken in the rest of England south of the Thames and the Bristol Channel, excluding Cornwall and Wales, where Celtic tongues were spoken. Other Saxon dialects have not survived in written form and are not known to modern scholars; Mercian, spoken by the Angles between the Humber and the Thames; Northumbrian, another Anglian dialect, from the Humber north to the river Forth (hence the name – North –Humbrian).

The boundaries between the dialects were uncertain and probably movable. The dialects passed into one another imperceptibly and dialectal forms were freely borrowed from one dialect into another. Throughout this period the dialects enjoyed relative equality; none of them was the dominant form of speech, each being the main type used over a limited area.

Scandinavian Raids

In the 8^th c. raiders from Scandinavia (the Danes} made made their first plundering attacks on England. The struggle of the English against the Scandinavians last over 300 years, in the course of which period more than half of England was occupied by the invaders and reconquered again. The Scandinavians subdued Northumbria and East Anglia, ravaged the eastern part of Mercia, and advanced on Wessex. Like their predecessors, the West Germanic tribes, they came in large numbers to settle in the new areas. They founded many towns and villages in northern England with a mixed population made up of the English and the Danes. Since the languages of the conquerors and the conquered were similar, linguistic amalgamation was easy (fisc – fiscr).

Wessex stood at the head of the resistance. Under King Alfred of Wessex, one of the greatest figures in English history, by the peace treaty of 878 England was divided into two parts: the north-eastern half was called Danela9 (Danelaw) and the south-western part united under the leadership of Wessex. The reconquest of Danish territories was carried on successfully by Alfred’s successors, but in the late 10^th century Danish raids were renewed again; they reached a new climax in the early 11^th century headed by Swayn and Canute (Knut). The attacks were followed by demands for regular payments of large sums of money called Danegeld (Danish money) collected from many districts and towns. In 1017 Canute was acknowledged as king, and England became part of a great northern empire, comprising Denmark and Norway. On Canute’s death (1035) his kingdom broke up and England regained political independence; by that time it was a single state divided into 6 earldoms.

King Alfred’s Literary Activity

King Alfred known as Alfred the Great is normally given credit not only for his military and diplomatic skills, but also for his literary and translating activities. Because it was under his reign that learning and literature began to flourish in Wessex in the 9^th century. He is said to have gathered a group of scholars at his court at Winchester. An erudite himself, Alfred realized that culture could reach the people only in their own tongue. He shared the contemporary view that Viking raids were a divine punishment for the people's sins, and he attributed these to the decline of learning, for only through learning could men acquire wisdom and live in accordance with God's will. Hence, in the lull from attack between 878 and 885, he invited scholars to his court from Mercia, Wales, and the European continent. He learned Latin himself and began to translate Latin books into English in 887. He directed that all young freemen of adequate means must learn to read English, and, by his own translations and those of his helpers, he made available English versions of “those books most necessary for all men to know,” books that would lead them to wisdom and virtue. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, by the English historian Bede, and the Seven Books of Histories Against the Pagans, by Paulus Orosius, a 5th-century theologian—neither of which was translated by Alfred himself, though they have been credited to him—revealed the divine purpose in history. Alfred's translation of the Pastoral Care of St. Gregory I, the great 6th-century pope, provided a manual for priests in the instruction of their flocks, and a translation by Bishop Werferth of Gregory's Dialogues supplied edifying reading on holy men. Alfred's rendering of the Soliloquies of the 5th-century theologian St. Augustine of Hippo, to which he added material from other works of the Fathers of the Church, discussed problems concerning faith and reason and the nature of eternal life. This translation deserves to be studied in its own right, as does his rendering of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. In considering what is true happiness and the relation of providence to faith and of predestination to free will, Alfred does not fully accept Boethius' position but depends more on the early Fathers. In both works, additions include parallels from contemporary conditions, sometimes revealing his views on the social order and the duties of kingship. Alfred wrote for the benefit of his people, but he was also deeply interested in theological problems for their own sake and commissioned the first of the translations, Gregory's Dialogues, “that in the midst of earthly troubles he might sometimes think of heavenly things.” He may also have done a translation of the first 50 psalms. Though not Alfred's work, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, one of the greatest sources of information about Saxon England, which began to be circulated about 890, may have its origin in the intellectual interests awakened by the revival of learning under him. His reign also saw activity in building and in art, and foreign craftsmen were attracted to his court.

Old English Written Records

The records of OE writings embrace a variety of matter: they are dated in different centuries, represent various local dialects, belong to diverse genres and are written in different scripts. The earliest written records of English are inscriptions on hard material made in a special alphabet known as the runes. (See previous lectures)

The two best known runic inscriptions in England are the earliest extant OE written records. One of them is an inscription on a box called the Franks Casket, the other is a short text on a stone cross found near the village of Ruthwell and known as the Ruthwell Cross. Both records are in Northumbrian dialect.

The Franks Casket was discovered in the early 19^th c. in France, and was presented to the British Museum by a British archeologist A.W. Franks. The Casket is a small box made of whale bone; its four sides are carved; there are pictures in the centre and runic inscriptions around. The longest among them, in alliterative verse tells the story of the whale bone, of which the Casket is made.

The Ruthwell Cross is a 15ft tall stone cross inscribed and ornamented on all sides. The principal inscription has been reconstructed into a passage from an OE religious poem, The Dream of the Rood, which was also found in another version in a later manuscript.

Many runic inscription have been preserved on weapons, coins, amulets, tombstones, rings, various cross fragments. Some runic insertion occur in OE manuscripts written in Latin characters.

A most important role in the history of the English language was played by the introduction of Christianity. The first attempt to introduce the Roman Christian religion was made in the 6^th century during the supremacy of Kent. In 597 a group of missionaries from Rome dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great landed on the shore of Kent. They made Canterbury their centre and from there the new faith expanded to Kent, East Anglia, Essex, and other places. The movement was supported from the north; missionaries from Ireland brought the Celtic variety of Christianity to Northumbria. In less than a century practically all England became Christianized.

The introduction of Christianity gave a strong impetus to the growth of learning and culture. Monasteries were founded all over the country, with monastic schools attached. Religious service and teaching were conducted in Latin. A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially in Northumbria as early as the 8^th and 9^th centuries. During the Scandinavian invasions the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out and English culture shifted to the southern kingdoms, most of all to Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. From that time till the end of the OE period, Wessex with its capital at Winchester remained the cultural centre of England.

OE scribes used two kinds of alphabet: runic and Latin. The bulk of the OE records is written in Latin characters but the scribes made certain modifications and additions to indicate OE sounds.

Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest stages of phonetic spelling. Some OE letters indicated two or more sounds; some letters stood for positional variants of phonemes: a and F. Fricatives stood for 2 sounds each: a voiced and a voiceless consonant. (See Table 2)

The letters could indicate short and long sounds. The length of the vowels is shown by a macron: bB t [ba:t])boat or by a line above the letter; long consonants are indicated by a double letter. Below is an extract from Orosius’s World History as translated by King Alfred in West Saxon dialect, 9^th c.).

Table 1

Origins of the English Language

Dates	Tribes/People	Notes
300 B.C	The Iberians	The Iberian Peninsula, modern Spain and Portugal
VII c.B.C	The Celtic tribes: the Galls, the Brythons, the Belgae	Celtic languages: 1) the Gallo-Breton group: -Gallic, spoken in Gaul (modern France) -British represented by Welsh (Wales), Cornish (Cornwall), extinct in the 18^th c.) -Breton (Brittany) 2) the Gaelic group: -Irish (Ireland) -Scots (Erse), Highland Scotland -Manx (the isle of Man, a few hundred)
1 c. B.C.   ruled about 400 years	The Roman invasion: - 55 B.C., Julius Caesar -54 B.C., Julius Caesar   -43 A.D. Claudius - 80 A.D –Scotland     -410 Roman legions recalled from Britain	-a brief stay and return to Gaul -advanced as far as the Thames, a short stay - colonization: military camps, roads, fortifications, cities, protective walls -Romanisation
Vс AD (449)	The Anglo-Saxon invasion (Hengist and Horsa): the Jutes/Frisians, the Saxons, the Angles – An9elcyn, An9elcynnes land - England	Settlement: -The Jutes/Frisians: Kent, the Isle of Wight -the Saxons: south and north of the Thames the Angles: north of the Thames – river Forth, between the Wash and Humber; to the north of Humber
VI c.AD	7 kingdoms: -Northumbria: 2 parts -Mercia -East Anglia -Wessex -Sussex -Essex -Kent struggled for supremacy	4 basic kingdoms with dialects: -Northumbrian, Mercian (Anglian) -West Saxon -Kentish     828 – rise of Wessex, king Ecgbert subdued Mercia and Northumbria, Winchester – the capital
VII с – XI c	The Danish invasion	-Danela9 (Danelaw) -878 -1066 –Canute(Knut) – king of England -1042-Edward the Confessor (Anglo-Saxon dynasty)

Old English Written Records

Dialects	The Runic Alphabet	Dialects	The Latin Alphabet
IX c. Northumbrian	-Ruthwell Cross, a religious poem engraved on a stone cross near the village of Ruthwell in South-East Scotland -The Franks Casket – made of whalebone and found in France; a short poem about whalebone	-West-Saxon   IX-XI c.c.	-King Alfred’s original compositions and translations -The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle -works of abbot Ælfric -sermons of Wulfstan
		-Mercian   IX c.	-translations of the Psalter and hymns
		Kentish   Northumbrian	-translation of the Psalter and old charters -Caedmon’s Hymn Bede’s Dying Song Poems: Beowulf, Genesis, Exodus, Judith, etc. (Anglian + West Saxon)

The Old English Alphabet

a æ b c [k], [k’] d e

f [f], [v] 9 [g], [g’], [j] h [h], [х ], [ x’] i l m

n [n], [ŋ] o p r s [s], [z] t

Þ ð [ð}, [T] u w x y

2 The Middle English Period

The Norman Conquest and its Influence on the Linguistic Situation in England.

A. The Norman Conquest

The Norman conquest of England began in 1066. It proved to be a turning point in English history and had a considerable influence on the English language. The Normans were by origin a Scandinavian tribe (Norman < Norþman). In the 9^th century they began inroads on the northern part of France and occupied the territory on both shores of the Seine estuary. Under the treaty concluded in 912 with the Norman chief Rollo, the French king Charles the Simple ceded to the Normans this stretch of coast, which since then came to be called Normandy. During the century and a half between the Normans’ settlement in France and their invasion of England they had undergone a powerful influence of French culture. Mixing with the local population, they adopted the French language and in the mid-eleventh century, in spite of their Scandinavian origin, they were bearers of French feudal culture and of the French language.

Soon after Canute’s death (1042) and the collapse of his empire, the old Anglo-Saxon line was restored but their reign was short-lived. The new English king, Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), who had been reared in France, brought over many Norman advisors and favourites; he distributed among them English lands and wealth to the considerable resentment of the Anglo-Saxon nobility and appointed them to important positions in the government and church hierarchy. He not only spoke French himself, but insisted on it being spoken by the nobles at his court. William, Duke of Normandy, visited his court and it was rumoured that Edward appointed him his successor. In many respects Edward paved the way for Norman infiltration long before the Norman conquest. However, the government was still in the hands of Anglo-Saxon lords, headed by the powerful Earl Godwin of Wessex.

In 1066, upon Edward’s death, the Elders of England (OE Witan) proclaimed Harold Godwin king of England. As soon as the new reached William of Normandy, he mustered a big army by promise of land and plunder (one third of his soldiers were Norman, others mercenaries from all over Europe), and with the support of the Pope, landed in Britain.

In the battle of Hasting, fought on October 14, 1066, Harold was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the Norman conquest, though the military occupation of the country was not completed until a few years later. After the victory at Hastings, William by-passed London cutting it off from the North and made the Witan of London and the bishops at Westminster Abbey crown him king. In the course of a few years, putting down revolts in various parts of the country, burning down villages and estates, the Normans became masters of England. Mercia and Northumbria, which tried to rise against the conquerors, were relentlessly crushed and almost depopulated. Old fortifications were replaced by huge stone Norman castles while most of the lands of the Anglo-Saxon lords passed into the hands of the Norman barons. William’s own possessions comprised about one third of the country. The Normans occupied all the major post in the church, government and in the army.

Following the conquest hundreds of people from France crossed the Channel to make their home in Britain. Immigration was easy, since the Norman kings of Britain were also dukes of Normandy and, about a hundred years later, took possession of the whole western part of France, thus bringing England into still closer contact with the continent. French monks, tradesmen and craftsmen flooded the south-western towns, so that not only the higher nobility but also much of the middle class was French. Generally speaking, during the reign of William the Conqueror (1066-1087) about 200 000 Frenchmen settled in England.

B. Its Effect on the Linguistic Situation

After the Norman conquest of 1066 the linguistic situation in England was the following: the royal family and the court, the government and the feudal upper classes spoke Norman (French). It was also the everyday language of many nobles, of the higher clergy and of many townspeople in the South. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people; French, along with Latin, was the language of writing. Teaching was largely conducted in French and boys at school were taught to translate their Latin into French instead of English.

However, the main bulk of the population – the peasantry and the townspeople, and people in the countryside, those who lived in the Midlands and up north - spoke Anglo-Saxon (English) and looked upon French as foreign and hostile. Since most of the people were illiterate, the English language was almost exclusively used for spoken communication.

Alongside these two languages a third language existed, Latin, as the international language of the church and medieval church science (within the boundaries of Western Europe).

At first French and English existed side by side without mingling. Then slowly and quietly they began to permeate each other. The Norman barons and the French town-dwellers had to pick up English words to make themselves understood, while the English began to use French words in everyday speech. A good knowledge of French would mark a person of higher standing giving him a certain social prestige. With time probably many people became bilingual and had a fair command of both languages.

These peculiar linguistic conditions could not remain static. The struggle between French and English was bound to end in the complete victory of English, for it was the living language of the entire people, while French was restricted to certain social spheres and to writing. Yet the final victory was still a long way off. In the 13^th century only a few steps were made in this direction. The earliest sign of the official recognition of English by the Norman kings was the famous Proclamation issued by Henry III in 1258 to the councilors in Parliament. It was written in 3 languages: French, Latin and English. King Henry IV (1399-1413) was the first English king whose mother tongue was English. In 1399 when accepting the throne he made his first official speech in English., he In mid-14^th century the influence of English rose. In 1362 (under king Edward III) Parliament, acting on a petition of the City of London, ruled that courts of law should conduct their business in English, as ‘French was too little known’. In the same year English was first used in Parliament itself. About this time French was replaced by English as the language of teaching in schools. Thus, by the end of the 14^th century supremacy of Anglo-Norman came to an end, though some scattered remains of it stayed on till a much later time, and isolated French formulas have survived until the present, such as the motto on the British coat-of-arms: ‘Dieu et mon droit’ (God and my right). The victory of English was due to the rise of social layers that spoke it – the gentry and the town bourgeoisie, which took the upper hand in the struggle against the feudal top layer of society.

ME Dialects

A. Growth of Dialectal Differences

In Early Middle English the differences between the regional dialects grew. Never in history, before or after, was the historical background more favourable for dialectal differentiation. The main dialectal division in England, which survived in later ages with some light modification of boundaries and considerable dialect mixture, goes back to the feudal stage of British history.

In the age of poor communication dialect boundaries often coincided with geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, forests and mountains, as these barriers would hinder the diffusion of linguistic features.

In addition to economic, geographical and social conditions, dialectal differences in early ME were accentuated by some historical events, namely the Scandinavian invasions and the Norman conquest.

In the 14^th century there were three main groups of dialects in English: Northern, Midland and Southern which had developed from respective OE dialects. The boundary line between North and Midland was the river Humber, that between Midland and South ran approximately along the Thames. (The precise division is impossible as available sources are scarce and unreliable).

The Southern group included the Kentish and the South-Western dialects. Kentish was a direct descendant of the same OE dialect. As for the South-Western group, it was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects (both West Saxon and East Saxon). The East Saxon was not prominent in OE, but became more important in Early ME, since it made the basis of the dialect of London in the 12^th and 13^th centuries. (The London dialect also belongs to this group).

The Midland (central) dialects which corresponded to the OE Mercian dialect, were divided into West Midland and East Midland as two main areas, with further subdivisions within: South-East Midland and North-east Midland, South-West Midland and North-West Midland. In ME the Midland area became more diversified linguistically than the OE Mercian kingdom occupying approximately the same territory.

The Northern dialects had developed from OE Northumbrian. In early ME the Northern dialects included several provincial dialects, e.g. Yorkshire and the Lancashire dialects and also what later became known as Scottish.

The dialects differed from each other by essential phonetic and morphological features. These differences corresponded to the geographical distribution of the dialects: discrepancies between the extreme dialects were greater than those between each of the extremes and the Midland.

A ME translator called John Trevisa wrote: ‘ Men of the East with men of the West, as it were under the same part of heaven, agree more in pronunciation of speech, than men of the North with men of the South. Therefore the Mercians, who are part of Midland England, as it were partners with the ends, understand the side languages, Northern and Southern, better than Northerners and Southerners understand one another’.

In the course of early ME the area of the English language in the British Isles grew. Following the Norman Conquest the former Celtic kingdoms fell under Norman rule. Wales was subjugated in the late 13^th century, its eastern half became part of England, while the North and West of Wales was a principality governed separately. In the late 12^th century the English made their first attempts to conquer Ireland. The invaders settled among the Irish and were soon assimilated, a large proportion of the invaders being Welshmen. Though part of Ireland was ruled from England, the country remained divided and had little contact with England. The English language was used there alongside Celtic languages – Irish and Welsh – and was influenced by Celtic.

The Early ME dialectal division was preserved in the succeeding centuries, though even in Late ME the linguistic situation changed. In Early ME, while the state language and the main language of literature was French, the local dialects were relatively equal. In Late ME, when English had been reestablished as the main language of administration and writing, one of the regional dialects, the London dialect, prevailed over the others.

The Rise of the London Dialect

In the 14^th and 15^th centuries the dialectal division was the same but the relations among the dialects were changing. The extension of trade beyond the confines of local boundaries, the growth of towns with a mixed population favoured the intermixture and amalgamation of the regional dialects. More intensive inter-influence of the dialects, among other facts, is attested by the penetration of Scandinavian loan-words into the West-Midland and Southern dialects from the North and by the spread of French borrowings in the reverse direction. The most important event in the changing linguistic situation was the rise of the London dialect as the prevalent written form of language.

As is known, the history of London goes back to the Roman period. Even in OE times London was by far the biggest town in Britain, although the capital of Wessex - the main English kingdom – was Winchester. The capital was transferred to London a few years before the Norman Conquest.

3 The New English Period

The XVI century – the Period of the Development of the National Literary Language

The formation of the national literary English language covers the Early NE period (1475—1660). Henceforth we can speak of the evolution of a single literary language instead of the similar or different development of the dialects. (Note 1)

There were at least two major external factors which favoured the rise of the national language and the literary standards: the unification of the country and the progress of culture. Other historical events, such as increased foreign contacts, affected the language in a less general way: they influenced the growth of the vocabulary.

A. Economic and Political Unification. Conditions for Linguistic Unity

As early as the 13^th century, within the feudal system, new econom­ic relations began to take shape. The villain (виллан, крепостной) was gradually superseded by the rent-paying tenant (арендатор, съёмщик;). With the growing interest in commercial profits, feudal oppression grew and the conditions of the peasants deteriorated. Social discontent showed itself in the famous peasants' rebellions of the 14th and 15th c.

The village artisans (кустарь, мастеровой, ремесленник) and craftsmen (мастер, ремесленник) travelled about the country look­ing for a greater market for their produce. They settled in the old towns and founded new ones near big monasteries, on the rivers and at the cross roads. The crafts became separated from agriculture, and new social groups came into being: poor town artisans, the town middle class, rich merchants, owners of workshops and money-lenders.

The 15th and 16th centuries saw other striking changes in the life of the country: while feudal relations were decaying, bourgeois relations and the capitalist mode of production were developing rapidly. Trade had. extended beyond the local boundaries and in addition to farming and cattle-breeding, an important wool industry was carried on in the countryside. Britain began to export woolen cloth produced by the first big enterprises, the "manufactures". The landowners evicted (выселять; удалять; изгонять, высылать (from)) the peasants and enclosed their land with ditches and fences, turning it into vast pastures.

The new nobility, who traded in wool, fused with the rich towns­people to form a new class, the bourgeoisie, while the evicted farmers, the poor artisans and monastic servants turned into farm labourers, wage workers and paupers.

The changes in the economic and social conditions led to the inter mixture of people coming from different regions and to the strengthening of social ties between the various parts of the country.

Economic and social changes were accompanied by political unification. In the last quarter of the 15th c. England became a centralized state.

At the end of the Hundred Years' War, when the feudal lords and their hired armies came home from France, life in Britain became more turbulent than ever. The warlike nobles, disappointed with their defeat is France, fought for power at the King's Court; continued anarchy and violence broke out into a civil war known as the Wars of the Roses 1455—148 5). The thirty-year contest for the possession of the crown ended in the establishment of a strong royal power under Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor dynasty.

The absolute monarchy of the Tudors was based on a new relation of class forces: the crown had the support of the middle class. Henry VII reduced the power of the old nobles and created a new aristocracy out of the rural and town bourgeoisie. The next step in the creation of absolute monarchy was to break the monopoly of the medieval Papacy. This was achieved by his successor, Henry VIII (1509—1547), who quarreled with the Pope, declared himself head of the English Church and dissolved the monasteries (the English Reformation, 1529—1536); now the victory of the Crown was complete. The economic and political unification played a decisive role in the development of the English language.

All over the world the victory of capitalism over feudalism was linked up with the consolidation of people into nations, the formation of national languages and the growth of superdialect forms of language to be used as a national Standard. The rise of capitalism helped to knit together the people and to unify their language.

Progress of Culture. Introduction of Printing

The 15th and 16th c. in Western Europe are marked by renewed interest in classical art and literature and by a general efflorescence of culture. The rise of new vigorous social class – the bourgeoisie – proved an enormous stimulus to the progress of learning, science, literature and art.

The universities at Oxford and Cambridge (founded in the 12^th century) became the centres of new humanistic learning. Henry VIII assembled at his court a group of brilliant scholars and artists. Education had ceased to be the privilege of the clergy; it spread to laymen (мирянин) and people of lower social ranks. After the Reformation teachers and tutors could be laymen as well as clergymen.

As before, the main subject in schools was Latin; the English language was labelled as "a rude and barren tongue", fit only to serve as an instrument in teaching Latin. Scientific and philosophical treatises were written in Latin, which was not only the language of the church but also the language of philosophy and science. The influence of classical languages on English grew and was reflected in the enrichment of the vocabulary.

Of all the outstanding achievements of this great age the invention of printing had the most immediate effect on the development of the language, its written form in particular. "Artificial writing" as printing was then called, was invented in Germany in 1438 (by Johann Gutenberg); the first printer of English books was William Caxton.

William Caxton (1422-1491) was born in Kent. In 1441 he moved to Flanders, where he spent over three decades of his life. During a visit to Cologne he learned the method of printing and in 1473 opened up his own printing press in Bruges. The first English book, printed in Bruges in 1475, was Caxton’s translation of the story of Troy RECUYELL OF THE HISTORYES OF TROYE. A few years later he brought his press over to England and set it up in Westminster, not far outside the city of London. All in all about one hundred books were issued by his press and about a score of them were either translated or edited by Caxton himself.

Among the earliest publications were the poems of Geoffrey Chaucer, still the most popular poet in England, the poems of John Gower, the compositions of John Lydgate, the most voluminous (плодовитый) poet of the age, Trevisa’s translation of the POLYCHRONICON, and others. Both Caxton and his associates took a greater interest in the works of medieval literature than in the works of ancient authors or theological and scientific treatises (трактат) published by the printers on the continent. About one quarter of his publications were translations from French, e. g.: RECUYELL OF THE HISTORYES OF TROYE mentioned above, GAME AND PLAYE OF THE CHESSE, the famous romance of knight­ly adventure MORTE D'ARTHUR ("Death of Arthur") by Thomas Malory, one of the last works in this genre.

In preparing the manuscripts for publication William Caxton and his successors edited them so as to bring them into conformity with the London form of English used by their contemporaries. In doing this they sometimes distorted the manuscripts considerably. Their corrections enable us to see some of the linguistic changes that had occurred since the time when the texts were first written. Here are some substitutions made by Caxton in Trevisa's POLYCHRONICON, written a hundred years before:

Trevisa: i-cleped, ich, steihe, as me troweth, chapinge;

Ca xton: called, I, ascended, as men supposed, market.

It is difficult to overestimate the influence of the first printers in fixing and spreading the written form of English. The language they used was the London literary English established since the age of Chaucer and slightly modified in accordance with the linguistic changes that had taken place during the intervening hundred years. With cheap printed hooks becoming available to a greater number of readers, the London form of speech was carried to other regions and was imitated in the written works produced all over England.

The greatest influence exerted by the printers was that on the writ­ten form of the word. Caxton's spelling, for all its irregularities and inconsistencies, was more normalised than the chaotic spelling of the manuscripts. The written forms of many words perpetuated by Caxton were accepted as standard and have often remained unchanged in spite of the drastic changes in pronunciation. It should be noted that Caxton's spelling faithfully reproduced the spelling of the preceding century and was conservative even in his day.

In conclusion we may recall that so great was the effect of printing on the development of the language that the year 1475 — the date of the publication of the first English book — is regarded as a turning point in English linguistic history and the start of a new period — NE.

Foreign Contacts in the Early New English Period

The Tudors encouraged the development of trade inside and outside the country. The great geographical discoveries (beginning with the discovery of the New World in 1492) gave a new impetus to the progress of foreign trade: English traders set forth on daring journeys in search of gold and treasures. Under the later Tudors England became one of the biggest trade and sea powers.

The main events of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) were connected with the rise of merchant capital. Ousting her rivals from many markets England became involved in the political struggle of the European countries for supremacy. Most complicated were her rela­tions with France, Spain and Portugal: in 1588 England defeated the Spanish fleet, the Invincible Armada., thus dealing a final blow to Spain, her main rival in overseas trade and in colonial expansion. In the late 16th c. England founded her first colonies abroad.

The contacts of England with foreign nations, although not necessarily friendly, became closer, which had an inevitable influence on the growth of the vocabulary.

Expansion of English over the British Isles

As Britain consolidated into a single powerful state, it extended its borders to include Wales, Scotland and part of Ireland.

As mentioned before, the partial subjugation of Wales was the last stage of the Norman Conquest. It was not until the 16th c., however, that the annexation was completed. Both during the wars and after the final occupation, the English language penetrated into Wales and partly replaced the native Celtic dialect; a large proportion of the aboriginal population, however, did not give up their mother tongue and continued to speak Welsh. (It is noteworthy that to this day Wales has preserved a large number of old Celtic place-names and the Welsh dialect.)

The attempts to conquer Ireland in the 13th and 14th c. ended in failure. In Ireland, only the area around Dublin was ruled direct from England, the rest of the country being Irish or Anglo-Irish. Ireland remained divided among innumerable chiefs and turned into one of the poorest and most backward countries. Despite the weak ties with England and the assimilation of English and Welsh invaders by the Irish, in- penetration continued

The repeated claims of the English kings to be overlords of Scotland were met with protest and revolt. In the early 14th c. Scotland’s independence was secured by the victories of Robert Bruce. Feudal Scotland remained a sovereign kingdom until the later Tudors, but the influence of the English language was greater than elsewhere.

Scotland began to fall under English linguistic influence from the 11 century, when England made her first attempts to conquer the territory. The mixed population of Scotland — the native Scots and Picts, the Britons (who had fled from the Germanic invasion), the Scandinavians (who had stayed on after the Scandinavian settlement), and the English who had gradually moved to the north) from the neighboring regions) was not homogeneous in language. The Scotch-Gaelic dialect of the Scots was driven to the Highlands, while in Lowland Scotland the Northern English dialect gave rise to a new dialect, Scottish, which had a chance to develop into an independent language, an offshoot of Eng­lish. The Scottish tongue flourished as a literary language and produced a distinct literature as long as Scotland retained its sovereignty. After the unification with England under the Stuarts (1603), and the loss of what remained of Scotland's self-government, Scottish was once again reduced to dialectal status. In the subsequent centuries English became both the official and the literary language in Scotland.

Thus by the end of the Early NE period, the area of English had expanded, to embrace the whole of the British Isles with the exception of some mountainous parts of Wales and Scotland, the Isle of Man, Cornwall and some parts of Ireland,.— though even in most of these regions people were becoming bilingual.

Flourishing of Literature in Early New English (Literary Renaissance)

The growth of the national literary language and especially the fixation of its Written Standard is inseparable from the flourishing literature known as the English Literary Renaissance.

The beginnings of the literary efflorescence go back to the 16th c.. After a fallow period of dependence on Chaucer, literary activity gained momentum in the course of the 16^th century and by the end of it attained such an importance as it had never known before. This age of literary flourishing: is known as the "age of Shakespeare" or the age of Literary Renaissance (also the "Elizabethan age" for it coincided roughly with the reign of Elizabeth). The most notable forerunners of the literary Renaissance in the first half of the 16th c. were the great English humanist Thomas More (1478-1535) and William Tyndale, the translator of the Bible. The chief work of Thomas More, UTOPIA was finished in 1516; it was written in Latin and was first translated into English in 1551. In Utopia Th. More expressed his opposition to the way of life in contemporary England, which he defined as "a conspiracy of the rich against the poor" and drew a picture of an ideal imaginary society in which equality, freedom and well-being were enjoyed by all. More's other works were written in English; most interesting are his pamphlets during a controversy with W. Tyndale over the translation of the Bible.

William Tyndale was a student at Oxford and Cambridge and a priest in the church. In 1526 he completed a new English translation of the Bible. Both in his translations and original works Tyndale showed himself one of the first masters of English prose. He exerted a great influence not only on the language of the Church but also on literary prose and on the spoken language. The later versions of the Bible, and first of all the Authorised Version— KING JAMES' BIBLE (produced by a body of translators and officially approved in 1611) was in no small measure based on Tyndale's translation.

As elsewhere, the Renaissance in England was a period of rapid progress of culture and a time of great men. The literature of Shakespeare's generation proved exceptionally wealthy in writers of the first order. (Note 2)

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was the chief of the Elizabethan dramatists as well as a genius whose writings have influenced every age and every country. Shakespeare's plays were greatly admired in the theatres but less than half of them were printed in his lifetime. The first collected edition of his plays was the Folio of 1623.

It is universally recognized that Shakespeare outclassed all his contemporaries in all genres of drama and poetry (comedies, historical plays, tragedies and sonnets) and surpassed them all in his mastery ofthe English tongue. His works give an ideal representation of the literary language of his day. His vast vocabulary (amounting to over 20,000 words), freedom in creating new words and new meanings, versatility of grammatical construction reflect the fundamental properties of the language of the period.

New Sources of Information about the Language. Private Papers. Didactic Compositions

The amount of written matter which has come down to us from the Early NE period is far greater than that of the OE and ME periods, for the simple reason that many more texts were produced and had a better chance to survive during the relatively short span of time which has elapsed since. In addition to the writings of a literary, philosophical, theological, scientific or official character, produced, copied or printed by professionals, there appeared new kinds of written evidence pertaining to the history of the language: private papers. With the spread of education more people could read and write; they began to correspond and to write diaries. Extant family archives contain papers written both by educated and by uncultivated persons. The significance of their evidence for the history of the language is obvious: the writers were not guided by written tradition and could not set themselves any literary aims; they recorded the words, forms and pronunciations in current use, putting their own English on paper and reflecting all kinds of dialectal and colloquial variants. The earliest collections of letters preserved in family archives are the PASTON LETTERS written between 1430 and 1470 by members of the Paston family in Norfolk (i.e. in the East Midland dialect of late ME) and the CELY PAPERS written in the same dialect a short time later.

Numerous private letters of the 16th c. give a fair picture of colloquial speech, so far as it is possible in a written document. Of greatest value is the DIARY of Henry Machyn, a London merchant with no particular education. This diary as well as other private papers, bear testimony to the existence of social differences in the regional dialects, e.g. the existence of Cockney, a lower class London dialect since tin early 16th c.

The renewed interest in living languages in the 16th and 17th c., which came to be regarded as more important for practical purposes than the classical ones, led to the appearance of one more kind of printed matter: books of instruction for pupils, didactic works and various other compositions dealing with the English language.

A large number of early works concerned with the English language deal with "correct writing", in other words with spelling and pronunciation. The cur­rent ways of indicating sounds seemed inconsistent to many scholars and schoolmasters; they attempted to improve and regulate the graphic system of the language by designing better alphabets or by proposing rules for more consistent spelling. In the early 16th c. John Cheke, a scholar of Cambridge and a pioneer among spelling reformers, proposed that all letters should be doubled to indicate length - a practice very irregularly employed before his time; his associate Thomas Smith in his DIALOGUE CONCERNING THE CORRECT AND EMENDED WRITING Of THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (1568) set out a new alphabet of 34 letters to the same object. The greatest English phonetician of the 16th c., in the opinion of modern philologists, was John Hart, who produced a number of works, especially AN ORTHOGRAPHIE (1569). Being a keen observer he noticed the changing values of the letters brought about by the change in the sounds. His reforms of the English spelling, however, were as unsuccessful as those of his contemporaries. Other prominent scholars made no attempt to reform the spelling but tried to make it more consistent, or, conversely, to correct the pronunciation in accordance with the spelling.

For all their limitations and failures, the works of the early spelling reformers and phoneticians are important sources of information about the history of English sounds.

Manuals of English were also concerned with matters of grammar and vocabulary.

Like many descriptions of other European languages the earliest books dealing with English grammar were modelled on Latin grammars. Thus one of the early guides used in teaching English was a Latin grammar, written by William Lily: ETON LATIN GRAMMAR; it was supplied with English translations and equivalents of Latin forms. The title of another English grammar published in the late 16^th century displays the same approach: A PERFECT SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE TAKEN ACCORDING TO THE USE AND ANALOGIE OF THE LATIIN.

The grammars of the early 17th c. were more original. Alexander Gill’s LOGONOMIA ANGLICA published in 1619, written in Latin, contains English illustrations from contemporary authors, e. g. Ph. Sidney, Ben Johnson.

A new approach was postulated in the English grammar composed by the dramatist Ben Johnson, "for the benefit of all strangers out of his observation of the English language now spoken and in use" (1640). Although in the main he followed the traditional pattern of Latin grammars, he paid special attention to word order as an important feature of English grammatical structure, described the article as a separate part of speech; he was puzzled by the lack of order in verb forms, in moods and adverbs; he grouped the nouns into two declensions and subdivided the verbs into conjugations.

The first author to break with the Latin tradition was John Wallis, the most famous of all the 17th c. grammarians and phoneticians. His GRAMMAT1CA LINGUÆ ANGLICANÆ was first published in 1653; it was translated into English and went into many editions in the second half of the 17th century.

Other kinds of publications dealing with language were lists of words and dictionaries. The swift development of international trade created a demand for dictionaries; bilingual dictionaries of classical and contemporary languages were produced in increasing numbers in the 16^th and 17th centuries.

(Dictionaries of dead languages had appeared before that time: glosses to Latin religious works, made since OE were later combined into dictionaries; in 1499 the printers published the first English-Latin Dictionary ).

The earliest dictionaries of the English language were selective lists of difficult words. In those days the most common English words were difficult to write, whereas the learned ones, usually Latin borrowings abounded in the writings of the Renaissance, were not only hard to spell but also hard to understand.

To cope with this difficulty, the first English-English explanatory dictionaries were compiled. Robert Cawdrey's TABLE ALPHABETICAL CONTEYNING AND TEACHING THE TRUE WRITING, AND UNDERSTANDING OF HARD USUAL ENGLISH WORDS, BORROWED FROM THE HEBREW, GREEK, LATIN OR FRENC- ETC. issued in 1604, is one of the early publications of this kind. Cawdrey’s dictionary was quite small, containing about three thousand words. A slightly larger book was produced by John Bullokar in 1616, ENGLISH EXPOSITOR TEACHING THE INTERPRETATION OF HARDEST WORDS USED IN OUR LANGUAGE where he attempted to explain "scholastic" words. The first book entitled ENGLISH-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, a small volume compiled by Henry Cockeram, appeared in 1623: it contained explanations of common "hard" words or "vulgar" words defined with the help of their bookish equivalents, and stray bits of curious information about "Gods and Goddesses,... Boyes and Maides,... Monsters and Serpents,... Dogges,, Fishes and the like".

Normalising Tendencies.

Grammars and Dictionaries in the Late 17th and 18th c.

The age of the literary Renaissance, which enriched the language many ways and was marked by great linguistic freedom, was by the period of "normalisation" or period of "fixing the language”. This age set great store by correctness and simplicity of expression. The language of Shakespeare and his contemporaries struck the authors of the late 17th c. as rude and unpolished, though the neo-classicists (the term applied to the writers of this period) never reached the heights of the Renaissance writers. John Dryden (1631-1700), a versatile writer and competent stylist of the

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