Consonants. We must distinguish two variants of the development of [x]: (1) before t; (2) in final position

Development of [x]

We must distinguish two variants of the development of [x]: (1) before t; (2) in final position.

(1) [x] before t is lost, and the preceding short vowel is lengthened. For example: light [lixt>li:t], bright [brixt>bri:t], night [nixt>nit].

Long [i:] arising from this change took part in the vowel shift: [li;t>lait]. Spelling did not reflect this change, and these words are spelt with gh up to the present time. After the digraph gh had become silent, it was introduced into the word delight (from Fr. delit), on the analogy of the word light. In forms like brought, fought the [ou] developed into [o:].

(2) [x] final mostly changes into [f], as in rough, enough, cough, laugh. In a few words final [x] was lost, as in bough, dough, rough, through.

Loss of [1] before [k, m, f, v].

[1] was lost before [k] and the labial consonants [m, f, v]. Thus, the words talk, walk, chalk came to be pronounced [to:k], [wo:k], [to:k].

However [1] before [v] was preserved on words of Latin origin, as in dissolve, resolve, valve.

[1] was also lost before [d] in should and would, which were usually unstressed.

[1] appeared in words which had not had it in ME. This often happened in words of French origin; introduced of [1] might be supported by influence of the Latin prototype of the word and by imitation of French Latinizing spelling of the 14^th and 15^th centuries. Here belong the words: fault (ME) faute < O.Fr. faute < Latin falta from fallo ‘deceive’, realm (ME reaume < Ofr.reaume < Lat regalimen). It may be assumed that the letter first appeared as an etymologizing spelling, and then, under influence of various factors, the sound [1] appeared in these words.

Appearance and Loss of [w].

With an initial labialized vowel there appeared an initial [w]. The most well-known example is the word one. The development seems to have been this: [o:>wo:n>wu:n>wun>w˄n]. a similar development took place in the adverb once [w˄ns<ME ones].

[w] was lost in an unstressed syllable after a consonant in the words answer [a:ns], conquer [kɔŋkə], liquor [likə].

[w] was preserved in the words conquest [kŋkwist], forward [fo:wəd], and in other words containing the suffix – ward, except towards, which vacillates between [t:dz] and [tu’wɔ:dz]; also in the words language. In a stressed syllable w disappeared in the group “consonant + w + labialized vowel”, e.g. sword [so:d], two [tu:].

Voicing and Voiceless Fricatives.

About the same time voiceless consonants were voiced in several types of words. Voicing mainly affects the consonant [s] and the cluster [ks], which become [z] and [gz] respectively. In a few words it also affects the consonants [f] and [t], which accordingly become [v] and [d].

1. [s>z]. The most well-known examples of this voicing are some words of French origin: dessert [di’zə:t], resemble, possess. However, in some other words, under identical phonetic conditions, the consonant remained voiceless: dissect, dissemble, dissent.

2. [kz>gz]: exhibit [ig’zibit], exhort [ig’zɔ:t].

3. The change [tʃ> dʒ] occurred in ME knowleche> ME knowledge.

The voicing of the initial fricative in the pronominal words the, this, that, then, there, though, etc. may as well belong here.

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