П. French Affixes

I. Latin Affixes

Nouns	The suffix -ion	communion, legion, opinion, session, union, etc.
The suffix -tion	relation, revolution, starvation, temptation, unification, etc.
Verbs	The suffix -ate [eit]	appreciate, create, congratulate, etc.
The suffix -ute [ju:t]	attribute, contribute, constitute, distribute, etc.
The remnant suffix -ct	act, conduct, collect, connect, etc.
The remnant suffix -d(e)	applaud, divide, exclude, include, etc.
The prefix dis-	disable, distract, disown, disagree, etc.
Adjectives	The suffix -able	detestable, curable, etc.
The suffix -ate [it]	accurate, desperate, graduate, etc.
The suffix -ant	arrogant, constant, important, etc.
The suffix -ent	absent, convenient, decent, evident, etc.
The suffix -or	major, minor, junior, senior, etc.
The suffix -al	cordial, final, fraternal, maternal, etc.
The suffix -ar	lunar, solar, familiar, etc.

Table 2.

Nouns	The suffix -ance	arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc.
The suffix -ence	consequence, intelligence, patience, etc.
The suffix -ment	appointment, development, experiment, etc.
The suffix -age	courage, marriage, passage, village, etc.
The suffix -ess	tigress, lioness, actress, adventuress, etc.
Adjectives	The suffix -ous	curious, dangerous, joyous, serious, etc.
Verbs	The prefix en-	enable, endear, enact, enfold, enslave, etc.

To make a conclusion, Latin loans are classified into sub-groups:

1. Early Latin loans: came into English through the language of Anglo-Saxon tribes (cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine).

2. Later Latin Borrowings: penetrated the English vocabulary during the 16-th and 17-th centuries, when the people of England converted to Christianity (priest, bishop, nun, candle).

3. The third period of Latin borrowing came into English due to the Norman conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance (major, minor, intelligent, performance).

4. The Latest Stratum of Latin Words are mainly abstract and scientific terms (nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, vacuum).

One would certainly expect the native element to prevail in English. This anomaly is explained by the country's eventful history and by its many international contacts.

It has been mentioned that the English proper element is, in certain respects, opposed to the first groups of borrowimgs. Not only can it be approximately dated, but these words have another distinctive feature: they are specifically English having no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found, as, for instance, for the following words of the Indo-European group.

Star: Germ. Stern, Lat. Stella, Gr. aster.

Sad: Germ, satt, Lat. satis, R. сыт, Snscr. sd-.

Stand: Germ, stehen, Lat. stare, R. стоять, Snscr. stha-.

Here are some examples of English proper words. These words stand quite alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.

Lexical correlations are lexical units from different languages which are phonetically and semantically related. The number of Ukrainian-English correlations is 6870: beat-бити, voice-голос, day-день, widow-вдова, young - юний. Semantically Ukrainian-English lexical correlations are various. They denote everyday objects and commonly used things: brutal-брутальний, cap-капелюх, cold - холодний, ground-грунт, kettle- котел, kitchen-кухня, lily-лілія, money-монета, sister-сестра, quart-квартал.

Most of Ukrainian-English correlations have Indo-European background: murder-мордувати, garden-город, soot-сажа. The corresponding vocabulary units belonging to each of the languages can be alike: nose-ніс, son-син, mother-мати, brother-брат. But historically the process of phonetic adaptation and semantic development went on differently in the contrasted languages: stone is related to стіна, sit to сидіти, answer to сварити, swear and сварити.

As for the history if its development there exist two different approaches toward the historical development of the Ukrainian language.

The first one belongs to academician Yury Shevelyov. According to him, the Ukrainian language emerged from the pre-Slavonic language.

As a result of the split of the pre-Slavonic language five dialects were formed, two of which – Kyivо-Polissky and Galician-Podilsky – laid the basis of the Ukrainian language.

Yu. Shevelyov divided the history of the Ukrainian language into 6 periods:

a) pre-Ukrainian (the 7-th – the 9-th centuries),

b) Old Ukrainian (the 9-th – the 11-th centuries),

c) Early middle Ukrainian (the middle of the 15-th – the beginning of the 16-th century),

d) Middle Ukrainian (the middle of the 16-th up to the first part of the 18-th century),

e) Late Middle Ukrainian (the 18-th century),

f) Modern – from the last years of the 18-th century up to date.

There exists, though, another concept, put forward by a Russian scientist Alex Shachmatov and a Ukrainian scholar Agatangel Kymsky. According to A. Shachmatov, the Ukrainian language originated from the pre-Slavonic (from which other languages were derived, Russian and Byelorussian among them). In our further research we shall stick to this view.

Among inherited words the oldest are those belonging to the common Indo-European word stock. They (with certain phonetic or word-building changes) are widely spread among all the European languages. These are names of parts of the bogy, natural phenomena, plants, animals, the most necessary actions and processes, family relations: мати, син, брат, сестра, тітка, дочка.

The common Slavonic lexical units are the oldest layer of the stock of the Ukrainian vocabulary, inherited from the pre-Slavonic language, which exisited as early as the 5-th century C.E., through Old Slavonic. Assimilation of pre-Slavonic word stock began as early as the Old Slavonic period: уста, супостат, істина, небеса, Бог, хрест, золото, вождь, святиня, собор, союз, соратник.

Later the pre-Slavonis language became the source of nascency for all the other Slavonic languages. Old Slavonic spread on the territory of Kyiv Rus together with proliferation of Christianity.

Words which are most widely spread in all the Slavonic languages, e.g.: мати, син, дочка, батько, сестра, баба, жінка, орати, сіяти, кувати, шити, меч, граблі, вовк, коза, бик, кінь, свиня, ніс, зуб, око, борода, воля, гнів, гріх belong to common Slavonic word stock. Words of Old Slavonic origin can be found in any Slavonic language with certain phonenic or word-building variations: плем'я, чоловік, чоло, шия, рот, тіло, мило, весло, кінь, пшоно, вікно.

Some names of abstract notions are of Old Slavonic origin as well: диво, гріх, душа, правда, кривда, честь.

East-Slavonic layer of lexical units is the part of Ukrainian word stock, which was inherited by our language from Old Slavonic. The Old Slavonic language, being the literary language of the 9-th – 10-th centuries and a common source for modern Russian, Byelorussian, Ukrainian languages, contained words that are common to all of the three languages: білка, кішка, селезень, собака, коровай, пряник, коржик, гречка, осока, урожай, полова, мельник, селянин etc.

The word stock which appeared on the Ukrainian language basis, that is during the period of formation and development of the Ukrainian language (the 14-th century): багаття, бавитись, будинок, вареник, гай, карбованець, кисень, паляниця, освіта, мрія, літак is considered Ukrainian proper.

Assimilation of Russian borrowings went on quickly after Ukraine was joined to Russia. A part of the word stock is accepted through first-hand oral contacts: начальник, завод, чин, подвиг (the 17-th century).

Since the 18-th century the Russian language has become an intermediary in assimilating foreign word stock of West-European origin: акт, адвокат, боцман, генерал, дивізія, комісія.

Until the 17-th century Ukraine and Byelorus belonged to the Great Lithuanian Principality. One can trace words of common Ukrainian-Byelorussian literary landuage: бадьорий, бурчати, гудити, дьоготь, ківш, кажан, бачити, ганок, гудзик, помилка, хата, клуня.

But the Ukrainian language has many features which distinguish it from among the others. The idea of Alexander Tsarook, another scholar who indulged himself in studying the history of the Ukrainian language, states that the Ukrainian language emerged from the pre-language known as the Ants’ language.

Such differences in the ways of etymological development of the contrasted languages can be observed:

a) the huge influence of Slavonic elements in the Ukrainian language, while Germanic influence is observed in the English language;

b) different sources and ways of assimilation of borrowings. The process of implementing Christianity has resulted in a lot of Latin borrowings in the English language. Greek borrowings filled the same gap in the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language.

c) borrowings from languages of neighbouring nations are different. While there a lot of borrowings from French in the English language, there are a lot of borrowings from Arabic in the Ukrainian: казан, хватати, хворий, праця.

Polish borrowings in the Ukrainian language are: хлопець, кума, зичити, мешкати, в’язень, застава, пильнувати, блазень, вирок, необачний, прикрий, шаленство, ліжко, кпини, бидло, власний, гасло, ґудзик, завзятий, качка, козуб, кохати, лялька, обіцяти, перешкода, пончик, раптом, суниця, хіба, шлюб, шушваль, брама, бавитись, барвінок, вдячність, досконало, жупан, склеп, полька, панство (the 15-th century).

There are also a lot of borrowings from other Slavonic and Ingo-European languages. Among them there are: Check borrowings in the Ukrainian language. They are: брама, вагатися, влада, власний, ганьба, гасло, замок, постать, праця, смутний, наглість, табір.

Turkic (Arabic) borrowings are: торба, батіг, кайдани, отаман, адмірал, баран, беркут, бугай, кабан, ковбаса, бурлака.

Borrowings from Baltic-Finnish languages (from the 40-th century B.C.): дуб, журба, сом, щур, кульгати, сани (саамська), Русь.

Borrowed from the Caucasian languages (different languages) dating back to 35-th century B.C.): вино (Pelasgean), залізо, книга (Sumerian), коноплі (the same source), тигр (Armenian), багнет (Basks), Ворскла, Псло.

Borrowings from the Balkan languages (from the 30-th century B.C.): ватра, Карпати, могила, цап ( Albanian ), Самбір, Стрий.

From Greek: (the 5-th century B.C.): бандура, вапно, гаспид, ідея, комора, кутя, любисток, мак, огірок, Севастополь, троянда, Херсон, ховрах, циган, Ялта.

Iran borrowings (from the 4-th century B.C.): борщ, груша, Дніпро, доїти, заради, лелека, люлька, майдан, пан, сковорідка, собака, Сула, терези, хабар, хворий, хмиз, Хорол, чобіт, шаровари.

The Celtic borrowings (the 2-nd century B.C.): брага, будинок, Галичина, коньяк, лютий, сало, сокира.

Borrowings from the Roman languages (the 1-st century B.C.): аґрус, аркуш, барвінок, газета, капелюх, капуста, каструля, кашкет, ковдра, комір, котлета, крейда, лемент, оцет, палац, пальто, помідор (Italian ), свиня, секс, сосиска, тортури, халтура, цибуля.

From the Germanic languages such words are borrowed (the 2-nd century A.D.): буква, виноград, гість, гуцул, дружина, кіт, скло (from the Gottic languages), Аскольд, жебрак, клунок, скарб, стяг (Scandinavian), барва, глузд, король, плуг, ринок, слюсар, труна, француз, хутро, хвиля, шибка (Middle German), борт, вафлі, картуз, кран, швабра (Dutch).

Borrowed from the Slavonic languages: (4-th century A.D.): бажати, клопіт, невіглас, парубок, праця, прудкий, цікавий (all are from the Check language), Берлін, писок, халява (з лужицької), виховати, звіробій, ззаду, маруда, нащадок, обридати, розкішний (усі з білоруської), владика (з болгарської), жменя (словенська), хлопець (сербська).

Altay languages borrowings are: (approximately the 5-th century A.D.): Балаклава, Бахчисарай, беркут, богатир, булава, гарбуз, кабан, кавун, казан, килим, кобза, ковбаса, козак, Крим, сорок, товариш, торба, Тузла, тютюн, чумак, штанu (Turkic), бовдур, князь, пиріг, ура!, чавун (Mongolian).

Borrowed from the Semitic languages: (the 7-th century A.D.): алкоголь, бензин, валіза, борг, гітара, кава, лев, мафія, могорич, харчі, хустка (all of them came into Ukrainian via the Arabic languages), Африка, Барселона, мапа (from the Phoenician), блуза, гума, канапа, папір, хімія (from Old Egyptiean), бегемот, Іван, махлювати, субота, хохма, ювілей (from Hebrew).

From the Hungarian language: (the 10-th century A.D.): гайдамак, ґазда, кучма, куліш, табір, хутір.

From the Lithuanian language: (the 14-th century A.D.): блазень, відлига, вовкулака, гаразд, ґринджоли, зозуля, калюжа, кепсько, локшина, Москва, надра, пампушка, пастка, пелька, скарб, трощити, шморгати, Шостка, юшка, ялина.

Active penetration of German words took place during the 17-th – 18-th centuries A.D.: орден, солдат, швабра, паштет, фарш, футляр, шахта, вексель, бухгалтер.

Borrowed from German also are: бавовна, бешкет, вага, важкий, вантаж, гамбургер, груба, ґанок, ґрунт, дах, дріт, друк, жарт, кшталт, куля, краб, ланцюг, ліхтар, льох, маляр, нирка, пляшка, поштамт, рама, ринок, скарга, фарба, форель, цвях, шарф, шафа, шина, шлях, шпак, шприц, штанга, штука, шухляда (the 16-th century A.D.).

From the local languagers of the European colonies in Africa and Asia, America (the 17-th century A.D.): какао, шоколад (нахуатль), каучук (майнас, Еквадор), банан (баконго), бамбук (малайська), табу, татуаж (languages of Australian aborigines).

Borrowings from Rusian are: (the 20-th century A.D.): болільник, вертоліт, вихідний, відмінник, достоїнство, залізобетон, колгосп, копійка, націнка, підприємство, прогул, приймач, промисловість, самодіяльність, трикутник, телебачення, учасник, супутник.

Borrowed from English are such words: вагон, вокзал, гумор, інтернет, мітинг, страйк, флірт (the 19-th century common era). Such borrowings as док, шхуна, мічман, футбол, хокей, старт, фініш, трамвай, кекс, ром, пунш are dated to the beginning of the 20-th century.

Dutch borrowings are: матрос, гавань, шлюпка, каюта. Italian borrowings are: адажіо, бас, віолончель, опера.

Most Ukrainian names are also borrowed. Having lost their original meanings such words as: Анатолій (схід сонця), Андрій (сміливий, мужній), Василь (царський), Зоя (життя), Галина (спокій) Катерина (чиста) were borrowed from Greek and became personal names. Latin borrowings are: Валентин (сильний), Вікторія (перемога), Марина (морська). From Scandinavian: Гліб (нащадок бога), Ігор (захисник).

The oldest borrowings are those fron Greek and Latin. Greek borrowings are: ботаніка, геологія, математика, психологія, азот, хлор, атмосфера, граматика, драма, діалог, демократія etc.

Latin borrowings are: інфекція, ангіна, вена, делегат, арматура, мотор.

One can differentiate a loan word from the original native word by its phonetic form and lexical meaning. For example, the sound ф is not inherent for the Ukrainian language. All the Ukrainian words containing this sound are borrowed from Greek or Latin: фізика, фігура, фокус, фея, факт. The words Turkic by origin are characterized by the presence of several sound a in their phonetic structure: сарай, базар, баклажан, байрак, кабан, сазан, чабан, барабан.

The initial sound a is characteristic for the borrowed words, Arabic in particular: (алгебра, алкоголь), Latin: (аудиторія, абітурієнт, ангіна), Greek: (алфавіт, автор, архів, азот, афоризм, анемія, автономія).

Greek borrowings contain the combination of letters pc, x, sk: (психологія, ксерокс, скелет), root parts: biblio-, geo-, bio-, log-, fon- (бібліотека, геологія, біологія, філолог, фонетика). Such borrowings are mostly terms used in different spheres of social and scientific life: демократія, космос, ідея, метод, аналіз, історія, граматика, діалог.

French borrowings enter the Ukrainian language mostly through the Russian language of the 18-th and especially of the 19-th century: політика, кур'єр, балет, режисер, роль, романс, абажур, магазин, пальто, люстра. Other borrowings from French are: бульйон, амплуа, пляж, кутюр'є, гoде.

One can differentiate two ways of borrowing a word from one language into another.

They are: penetrating through the oral speech and through the written language. The first way of penetrating is characterized by a radical adjustment of the borrowed word to the language environment into which it is borrowed. Sometimes the lexical meaning of the borrowed word is distorted by the so called “people’s etymology”. The range of such borrowings is very wide: along with cultural notions it includes words denoting household activities and swearing words. The oldest borrowings in the Ukrainian language are those which were borrowed in the Old Slavonic period of its development. That is why such borrowings can be found in almost all the Slavonic languages. They can be traced to Old Germanic. Among oral borrowings are those which were borrowed into Ukrainian from Turkic ones or via these languages.

Words which are borrowed from literally sources are characterized by corresponding emotional colouring. They tend to become international words and can be widely spread in many languages. The main source of lexical borrowings, which are connected with the notions of West-European culture, science, law, politics is Latin both for Ukrainian and other European languages.

Some borrowings can be used as synonyms of native Ukrainian words: (лінгвістика — мовознавство, мемуари — спогади, емоції — почуття) but the sphere of their use and stylistic colouring can be different.

If the word does not look like a Ukrainian one, its form can help you understand its meaning. It is known that musical terms were borrowed from Italian: анданте, акорд, композитор, піаніно, опера, соната, віолончель, соло, тріо, names of articles of furniture, clothes, meals are borrowed from French: пенсне, жабо, кашне, манжет, пюре, рагу. A lot words of French origin are still used in Ukrainian unassimilated: бюрo, купe, шасі, лото, манто, турне, гофре.

During many centuries close contacts among all Slavonic languages led to penetrating words of these languages into one another. Many words of Ukrainian origine penetrated the Russian and Byelorussian languages. In written memorials of the 14-th – 15-th centuries one can find words брунатний, гай, тиждень.

Ukrainian was a mediator source and a source of enrichment of the Russian language with foreign lexical units: aвтор, гімн, натура, крохмаль, метафора, фантазія, фігура, фортуна.

One should not think that the process of borrowing is restricted by certain time limits, say Medieval times or Old Slavonic period. It is constantly taking place due to international contacts. With the appearance of global internet system the process of borrowing is going quicker, e.g.: комп’ютер, файл, сервер, принтер, факс, модем, сканер, інтернет, рімейк. All these words were borrowed into Ukrainian within a couple of decades of the 20-th century.

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