Words - notional and functional

Typology of parts of speech

In typology, five criteria are used for identification of parts of speech.

1. the semantic criterion. Using that we find out the generalized meaning of the word.

e.g. The noun has the most general meaning of substance, the adjective has the categorical meaning of property.

2. the formal (or morphological) criterion. To identify the part of speech we analyze grammatical forms of the word.

e.g. if the word has the system of declension it is either a noun or an adjective.

3. The functional criterion. It concerns the syntactic role of the word in the sentence.

e.g. the function of predicate is typical for the verb.

4. The criterion of combinability. Using this criterion, we analyze the ability of the word to collocate with other parts of speech.

e.g. Adverbs combine with verbs, adjectives combine with nouns.

5. the derivational criterion. There are some affixes used only with a certain part of speech.

e.g. the Russian suffix -щик and the English suffixes -ship, -ment are peculiar for the noun.

Notional: the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb.

Functional: the preposition; the particle, the article, the interjection.

The Rus noun has three grammatical categories: case, number and gender.

The Eng noun has two categories: number and definiteness/indefiniteness.

The Rus adjective agrees with the noun in gender, number and case.

The Eng adjective has no grammatical agreement.

The Rus verb has the reflective category of gender, which the English verb lacks.

3. Verbal categories

a) the category of aspect

The category of aspect characterizes the mode of the realization of the process denoted by the verb. There is a variety of modes of a process or action expressed by different languages. Traditionally they include:

-iterativeness (повторяемость)

- continuousness (длительность)

- fre'quentativeness (многократность)

- instantaneousness (мгновенность)

- resultativeness (результативность)

- completeness (завершенность)

- limitedness (предельность)

Rus category of aspect is based on the meanings of limitedness and perfectiveness.

Two aspects: perfective and imperfective.

The imperfective aspect denotes an action in its progress, with no indication of its time limit.

e.g. писать, читать, говорить

The perfective aspect denotes an action that has some natural limit, or expresses result

e.g. написать, прийти, сказать

Peculiarity - the existence of correlative pairs of perfective and imperfective verbs, identical in meaning and differing in aspect.

e.g. носить - нести, давать - дать

The difference in aspect is expressed by a system of morphological means:

1. the suffixes -ыв, - ив, -ов, -ев

e.g. показать - показывать, прогулять - прогуливать, согреть - согревать

2. the suffix –ну

e.g двигать - двинуть

3. the prefixes с-, на-, зд~, о-, по-, от-, etc.

e.g. есть - съесть, писать - написать, прятать - запрятать, слепнуть - ослепнуть, строить -построить, строить - отстраивать

4. the change of root vowels

e.g. решать - решить, воображать - вообразить

5. The shifting accent

e.g. насыпать – на’сыпать, разрешать-раз’резать

Some pairs are formed of different stems.

E.g.- брать - взять, говорить - сказать, класть - положить

The English language doesn't have grammatical means of expressing the meaning of perfectiveness/impefectiveness.

e.g. He has come home at last = пришел, Не came home at last=пришел, perfective meaning

e.g. I live in Bristol, I'm living with my sister at the moment-живу, I have lived here all my life=живу (Perfect forms do not express result with non-limitive verbs)

e.g.He has come down to see her too often=часто приходил (iterativeness but not resultativeness), imperfective meaning.

Александр Иванович Смирницкий – the English complex verbal forms express a special category of "time correlation", different from both the tense and the aspect.

The continuous form denotes simultaneity with a certain moment, the perfect form denotes priority to it, and the perfect continuous form indicates the existence of a period prior to a moment.

The indefinite form is not coordinated with a moment. It expresses a separate action, not connected with another one, or subsequent actions none of which can be taken for the reference moment.

Rus doesn't have grammatical means for expressing "time correlation". It is shown by the context.

b)The category of tense

The tense systems of Rus and Eng coincide in the main features. The only significant difference is found in the system of relative time denotation.

The category of tense expressed the correlation of the process denoted by the verb with some moment. Tense forms characterize a process as simultaneous, prior, or subsequent to some moment.

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