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Metaphors

 

• Jt's useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

• A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in plain terms. For instance — ‘This table is made of wood’.

• At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we find the statement:

'The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky'

• This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willingness to step outside the rational, literal world.

• This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the context of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

• Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel

His filthy murders sticking on his hands

• This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer's sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt nd the material sticky blood.

• Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of meaning can be conveyed at the same time.

• Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as 'the sunshine breakfast' is more effective than a statement which might read: 'Have our cereal for your breakfast and you'll njoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn's been grown in a sunny climate.'

 

 

EPITHET

Epithets are such attributes which describe objects expressively. Assigned features. It is essential to differentiate between logical atributes and epithets proper. Logical attributes are objective and non-evaluating:

a round table, green meadows, next day, second boy, loud voice, гіркий перець, сива бабуся, рожева тканина, кисле яблуко, свіжий хліб, золота обручка, чмсита таріка, глуха людина, липовий цвіт, холодна вода, легка валіза. They have nothing to do with stylistics.

Epithets proper are subjective and evaluating, mostly metaphorical. These qualities make epithets expressive:

loud ocean, wild wind, glorious sight, irresistible charm, crazy be­haviour.

Classification. Epithets may be classified on the basis of their semantic and structural properties. Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: epithets associated with the nouns modified and epithets not associated with the nouns modified. Associated epithets point out typical features of the objects which they describe. Such typical features are implied by the meaning of the nouns themselves:

if forest, then - dark;

if attention, then - careful;

if seas, then - salty;

if tears, then - bitter;

if sky, then - blue;

гіркі сльози, сива давнина, золоті руки, чиста правда, глуха стіна, липова довідка, холодна байдужість, легке серце.

Unassociated epithets ascribe such qualities to objects which are not inherent in them. As a result of this, metaphors emerge fresh, unexpected, original and expressive:

voiceless sands, helpless loneliness, thirsty deserts, blank face, mur-

derous weather, г ipкuй coн, cuвuй біль, poжeвuй oбмaн, кислі очі,

золота nocмiшкa, чucma mynicmь, глyxuй mymaн.

Unassociated epithets may be called "speech epithets" because they are created right in the process of communication.

Associated epithets are mostly language epithets. Their use with cer­tain nouns has become traditional and stable. Thus, they are language-as-a-system elements.

As to their structural composition, epithets are divided into simple, com­pound, phrasal and clausal. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives:

magnificent sight, tremendous pressure, overwhelming occupation,

гробова тиша, голосистий дзвін, спрагле серце, масний погляд, солодкий час, гірка давнина, глухий кут.

Compound epithets are expressed by compound adjectives:

Mischief-making pupil, curly-headed boy, heart-burning desire,блакитнаво-срібний сон, щиросердне зізнання, хитромудрий начальник, легкокрила бричка, тонкосльоза людина.

Phrasal epithets are expressed by word-combinations of quotation type:

Do-it-yourself command, go-to-devil request, head-to-toe beauty, темно-сірі з грозою і цвітом очі, з переораним зморшками обличчям дід.

Clausal epithets are expressed by sentences:

I-don't-want-to-do-it feelins, I-did-it-myself statement, чутка “одна баба сказала”, підхід “моя хата скраю”, посада “куди пошлють”, робота “не бий лежачого”.

ANTONOMASIA

This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle of identification of human beings with things which surround them. People may be identified with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural phenomena.

When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talk­ing names" which aim at depicting certain traits of human character: moral and psychological features, peculiarities of behaviour, outlook, etc.:

John is a real Romeo.

The Snake entered the room (instead of Mary entered the room). Yesterday Jack came across Miss Careless again.

Sam is the Napoleon of crime.

I haven't seen the Pimple of late.

Після того Дев’тий, глянувши в конспект, удався до інших прикладів.

Ви ж просто Шаляпін, такий голос маєте!

Лазар ненавидів тюремного смотрителя, якому тюрма дала прізвище Морда.

PERSONIFICATION

 

When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions to inanimate objects, he resorts to the stylistic device of personification:

In the book Alfred found Love which was hiding herself between the pages.

Lie is a strange creature, and a very mean one.

The night was creeping towards the travelers.

Bimep ymoмився цілоденною борнею, ізнемігся, заблудився серед вулиць і в безладді тихо крутить пил і сміття і, плазуючи, питає, що ж робити?

З неба ж широко-величного, ясного та чистого радісно дивилося на них сонце й сміялось.

Сонце стояло якесь безмомічне і нерішуче. Боялось навіть моргнути.

ALLEGORY

Factually, allegory is antonomasia. The only difference between them lies in their usage: the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the whole text (a logically completed narration of facts or events). There are allegoric tales and fables, stories and novels. Completely alle­goric are such fables by I. Krylov as "Elephant and mongrel", "Donkey and nightingale", "Monkey and spectacles". Allegoric fables are not about elephants, dogs and donkeys. They are about people who behave like these animals:

Не було порятунку ні від Бога, ні від чорта, ні від людей. Суддею був Ведмідь, Вовки були підсудки.

Свиня з Мурахою сперечалися, хто з них двох багатший. А Віл був свідком правоти і побічним суддею. […] “Не те ви лічили, пане Віл ”, - перебила його мову Мураха.

 

IRONY

This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings:

ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means

displeased, etc.

Assigned features. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of context:

Too clever by half, a young hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to orate, to oratorize.

In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and gestures.

Communicative function. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc.

More examples:

What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this.

Favoured country! - they let the paupers go to sleep!

Cutting off chickens' heeds! Such a fascinating process to watch.

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Thank you very much for trumping my ace!

Biн maкuй poзyмнuй, що й “два плюс два” не второпає.

Аякже, рада вас бачити, тільки б ще три роки не приходили.

Схожа свиня на коня, тільки шерсть не така.

Боюсь, як торішнього снігу.

Гарне життя: як собаці на прив’язі.

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Note.Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be called disphemisms | Ex. II. Recognize metaphors and classify them
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