Permission,

Can

§ 76. The modal verb can has the following forms: can — the
present tense (e.g. He can speak English) and could — the past
tense. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts
as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English
when he was a child), b) in present-time contexts to express unre
ality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form
implying more uncertainty than can (e.g. He could speak English
if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?) Compare with
the Russian мог бы: Он мог бы сделать это, если бы у него
было время (unreality). He мог бы я вам помочь? (politeness) He
ужели он мог бы так сказать"! (uncertainty).

§ 77. Can has the following meanings:
1) ability, capability,

e.g. I can imagine how angry he is.
He can read a little French.

This meaning may also be expressed by to be able. The phrase
can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.

In the meaning of ability and capability can occurs in all kinds
of sentences.

e.g. She can play a few simple tunes on the piano.
Can you write with your left hand?
I cannot (can't) promise you anything.

In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive (see the ex-
amples above) and reference is made to the present. But depending
on the context it may also refer to the future.

e.g. We can discuss your paper after lunch.

However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or
if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future,
shall/will be able is used.

e.g. He will be able to write to us from Portugal.
I shall be able to earn my own living soon.

The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this
case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indica-
tive Mood here.

e.g. He could read a great deal during the holidays.
Could the boy read before he went to school?
After what had happened I couldn't trust him.

The form could may also be used in present-time contexts in
combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with
reference to the present or future.

e.g. "I don't want my daughter to be a typist." "Why not? She could

be secretary to some interesting man." (могла бы быть)
You could articulate more distinctly with that cigarette out
of your mouth, (мог бы говорить более отчетливо)

As the form could may be used in two ways (see § 76) it is
Usually understood as expressing unreality with reference to the
present or future unless there are indications of past time in the
sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint
landscapes will be understood as Она могла бы писать пейзажи.

If there is no indication of past time in the context but the speak
er wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able is used in-
stead of could to avoid ambiguity.

e.g. She was able to explain the mystery.

In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.

e.g. She could have explained the mystery. Она могла бы объяс-
нить эту тайну, (но не объяснила)

2) possibility due to circumstances,

e.g. You can see the forest through the other window.

We can use either the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect
Continuous in this sentence.

In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is fol-
lowed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the
present or future.

e.g. You can obtain a dog from the Dogs' Home at Battersea.
Can we use the indefinite article with this noun?
We can't use the indefinite article with this noun.

In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by
the simple infinitive in this case.

e.g. You could see the forest through the other window before the
new block of houses was erected.

The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may
also express unreality with reference to the present or future.

e.g. You could see the house from here if it were not so dark.

In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.

e.g. You could have seen the house from there if it had not been
so dark.

Note. When could is used with reference to the past it denotes only the ability
or possibility of performing an action but not the realization of the action. There
fore when a realized or an unrealized action is expressed, could is naturally not
used. If an action was carried out in the past, it is expressed with the help of to
manage or to succeed (the latter is used in literary style).

e.g. He managed to settle the difficulty.
He succeeded in attaining his aim.

If an action was not realized in the past it is expressed with the help of to fail,
or to manage and to succeed in the negative form.

e.g. He failed to reach the peak.

He did not manage to settle the difficulty.

Compare with the Russian: Он мог (был способен) переплыть Волгу в юно-
сти. — In his youth he could swim across the Volga.

But: Он смог переплыть Волгу а прошлом году. — Не managed to swim
across the Volga last year. Also in: Он не мог (ему не удалось) переплыть Волгу
в прошлом году. — Не failed (didn't manage) to swim across the Volga last year.

As for to be able, it may, depending on the lexical character of the infinitive
or the context, express either the ability or possibility of performing an action or
the realization of that action.

e.g. He was able to speak English well. (Он мог/умел хорошо говорить по-англий-

ски.)

Не was able to get the book from the library. (Он смог достать книгу в биб-
лиотеке.)

e.g. You can take my umbrella.

Can in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, inter-
rogative sentences in which a request is expressed, and in negative
sentences where it expresses prohibition.

Cf. You can use my car.
Can I use your car?
You can't use my car today.

In this meaning can is combined with the simple infinitive.
The form could with reference to the present is found only in
interrogative sentences in which it expresses a more polite request.

e.g. Could I use your car?

The form could is found in reported speech (i.e. in accordance
with the rules of the sequence of tenses).

e.g. He said that I could use his car.

He asked me if he could use my car.

4) uncertainty, doubt,

e.g. Can it be true?

In this meaning can is found only in interrogative sentences
(in general questions). Besides, sentences of this kind are often
emotionally coloured and so their application is rather restricted.

Depending on the time reference, can in this meaning is used
in combination with different forms of the infinitive.

Thus, if reference is made to the present, the simple infinitive
is found with stative verbs.

e.g. Can he really be ill?
Can it be so late?

With dynamic verbs, the continuous infinitive is used.

e.g. Can she be telling lies?

Can he be making the investigation all alone?

Can in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the ac-
tion to the past.

e.g. Can he have said it?

Can she have told a lie?

The combination of can with the perfect infinitive may also
indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the mo-
ment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs.

e.g. Can she really have been at home all this time?

However, if can is followed by a dynamic verb the Perfect
Continuous infinitive is used.

e.g. Can she have been waiting for us so long?

Could with reference to the present is also used in this way,
implying more uncertainty.

e.g. Could it be true?

Could she be telling lies?

Could he have said it?

Could she have been waiting for us so long?

In Russian both variants, with can and could, are rendered in
the same way: Неужели это правда?, Неужели она лжет? and
so on.

5) improbability,
e.g. It can't be true. (Это не может быть правдой. Вряд ли это так.)

In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences, which
are often emotionally coloured. Depending on the time reference,
this can is also used with different forms of the infinitive.

e.g. He can't be really ill.
She can't be telling lies.
He can't have said it.

She can't have been at home all this time.
She can't have been waiting for us so long.

Could is also used in this way making the statement less cate-
gorical.

e.g. It couldn't be true.

She couldn't be telling lies.

He couldn't have said it.

She couldn't have been at home all this time.

She couldn't have been waiting for us so long.

§ 78. Can and could followed by different forms of the infinitive,
are found in special questions where they are used for emotional co-
louring (for instance, to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.).

e.g. What can (could) he mean?
What can (could) he be doing?
What can (could) he have done?
Where can (could) he have gone to?

It can be rendered in Russian as: Что, собственно, он имеет
в виду?

§ 79. As is seen from the above examples, the form could refer-
ring to the present is sometimes clearly opposed to can in that it
expresses unreality whereas can expresses reality. This may be ob-
served in the following meanings:

ability — He can speak English.

He could speak English if necessary.

possibility due to circumstances —

You can get the book from the library.

You could get the book from the library if necessary.

In the other meanings, however, this difference between the
two forms is obliterated. Could is used either as a milder or more
polite form of can (a) or as a form implying more uncertainty
than can (b):

a) permission — Can I use your pen?

Could I use your pen? (more polite)

b) uncertainty, doubt, improbability —

Can it be true?

Could it be true? (less certain)

It can't be true.

It couldn't be true, (less certain)

§ 80- In addition to the above cases illustrating the inde-
pendent use of can, this modal verb occurs in adverbial clauses of
purpose, where it is structurally dependent (for a detailed treat-
ment of this use of can see "Verbs", § 143).

e.g. I'll leave the newspaper on the table so that he can see it at

once.

I left the newspaper on the table so that he could see it at
once.

§ 81. Note the following set phrases with can:

a) She can't help crying.

Дата добавления: 2014-12-29