Substitution that is dictated by social rules and substitution by Phraseological units

Borrowings from the other languages.

For example:

To ask (Anglo-Saxon) – запитувати;

To question (French) – запитувати, задавати питання;

To interrogate (Latin) – запитувати, довідуватися etc.

For example:

To be in one’s birthday suit – Бути в костюмі Адама і Єви; бути в чому мати народила (голим) etc.

If the word is polysemantic it is possible to find out a synonym to each of the meanings.

For example:

Fresh air (свіже повітря) – cool air (прохолодне повітря);

Fresh thought (свіжа думка) – new thought (нова думка);

Fresh face (свіже обличчя) –familiar face (знайоме обличчя);

Fresh cabbage (свіжа капуста) – green cabbage (зелена капуста);

Fresh bread (свіжий хліб) – soft aromatic bread (м’який, запашний хліб);

Fresh newspaper (свіжа газета) – today’s newspaper (сьогоднішня газета) etc.

II. Antonyms:

Antonyms are words of the same language, the same part of speech and the same semantic field, which are identical in style and express contradictory or contrary notions.

For example:

Life (життя) – death (смерть);

Truth (правда) – lie (брехня);

Day (день) – night (ніч);

Good (добро) – evil (зло);

Big (великий) – small (малий);

White (білий) – black (чорний) etc.

Antonyms are classified into:

I. Root and derivational antonyms according to the morphological structure.

1. Root-antonyms are formed from the different roots, for example:

Far (далеко) – near (близько);

Tall (високий) – low (низький);

Strong (сильний) – weak (слабкий) etc.

2. Derivational antonyms are formed from the same root with the help of negative affixes, for example:

Agree (погоджуватись) – disagree (розходитися у поглядах; протирічити одне одному);

Happy (щасливий) – unhappy (нещасливий);

Helpless (безпомічний) – helpful (корисний);

Logical (логічний) – illogical (нелогічний; непослідовний);

Оrientation (орієнтація; орієнтування) – disorientation (дезорієнтація) etc.

II. Contextual antonyms.

Contextual antonyms are thewords that are opposite in a certain context and are not antonyms outside it.

For example:

Some people have much to live on but little to live for – Дехто має вдосталь грошей для життя, та не має задля кого жити.

According to the semantic factor antonyms are classified on the base of distinguishing feature between two varieties of opposition:

I. Contrary opposition.

Its essence lies in the fact that two opposite notions, between which there can be added one or several opposing members, express it:

For example:

Hot – (lukewarm – warm – not warm, not cold – chilly) – cold etc.

(Гарячий – (теплуватий – теплий – ні теплий, ні холодний – прохолодний) – холодний та ін).

Young – (not young – not young, not old – middle age – elderly – oldish) – old etc.

(Молодий – (немолодий – ні молодий, ні старий – середнього віку – похилого віку – старуватий) – старий та ін).

II. Complementary opposition.

It is based on the relationships between notions, which are not characterized by the opposing members.

For example:

Life (життя) – death (смерть);

Good (добро) – evil (зло);

Man (чоловік) – woman (жінка);

Minus (мінус) – plus (плюс) etc.

In English a lot of words have synonyms and not many have antonyms.

Usually the following groups of words have antonyms:

1. Qualitative adjectives.

For example:

Sad (сумний) – glad (веселий, радісний);

Сlever (розумний) – stupid (дурний) etc.

2. Words denoting feeling and emotions.

For example:

Love (любов) – hate (ненависть);

Hope (надія) – despair (відчай) etc.

3. Words denoting position in time and space.

For example:

Far (далеко) – near (близько);

Early (рано) – late (пізно);

Day (день) – night (ніч) etc.

4. Words denoting direction.

For example:

Right (право) – left (ліво);

Here (тут) – there (там) etc.

Polysemantic words may have different antonyms when they are used in the different meanings.

For example:

Fresh air (свіже повітря) – warm, torrid air (тепле, спекотне повітря);

Fresh face (свіже обличчя) – familiar, pale face (знайоме, бліде обличчя);

Fresh cabbage (свіжа капуста) – pickled, sour cabbage (солена, кисла капуста);

Fresh bread (свіжий хліб) – stale, hard dry bread (несвіжий, черствий, сухий хліб);

Fresh newspaper (свіжа газета) – yesterday’s, old newspaper (вчорашня, стара газета);

Fresh thought (свіжа думка) – yesterday’s, old, traditional thought (вчорашня, стара, традиційна думка) etc.

The lexical device of artistic expressiveness called oxymoron (means phrase which unite two opposite words to show discrepancy of things which are described)is based on the phenomenon of antonymy.

For example:

Hot snow (гарячий сніг);

Bitter happiness (гірке щастя) etc.

III. Homonyms:

Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning and usage.

For example:

Ball (куля, м’яч, бал), bow (уклін, ніс корабля), goal (мета, задача, гол), date (дата, число, день, побачення, фінік) etc.

Homonyms are classified into:

I. Homonyms proper – words identical in pronunciation and spelling but different in their meaning.

For example:

Bank (берег ріки; банк);

Race (раса, гонки, заїзд, заплив, забіг) etc.

II. Homophones – words identical in sound form but different in spelling and meaning.

For example:

I (я) – eye (око);

Buy (купувати) – by (у, при, поряд, біля);

Air (повітря) – heir (спадкоємець);

Knight (лицар) – night (ніч) etc.

III. Homographs – words identical in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning.

For example:

Row [rou] (ряд, лінія)– row [rau] (гребля);

Lead [li:d] (лідерство, керування) – lead [led] (свинець);

Bow [bou] (лук (зброя)) – bow [bau] (уклін);

Wind [wind] (вітер) – wind [waind] (виток, завиток, поворот) etc.

Also homonyms are classified on the base of belonging homonym words to the different parts of speech:

I. Lexical homonyms (if homonym words belong to the same part of speech).

For example:

Ball (куля, бал), bank (банк, берег ріки) etc.

II. Lexico-grammatical homonyms (if homonym words belong to the different parts of speech).

For example:

(To) lead (вести, лідерство, свинець);

(To) right (правий, потрібний, право, права сторона) etc.

There are several sources of homonyms:

1. Phonetic changes.

For example:

Night (ніч) – knight (лицар) etc.

2. Borrowings.

For example:

Bank (берег ріки – банк) etc.

3. Word-building:

a) Conversion.

For example:

Ring (дзвінок) – to ring (дзвонити);

Plan (план) – to plan (планувати);

Work (робота) – to work (працювати);

Water (вода) – to water (поливати) etc.

b) Shorting.

For example:

Doc (док) – doctor (лікар, доктор);

Fridge – refrigerator (холодильник) etc.

c) Sound-imitation.

For example:

To bang (захлопувати з шумом);

To clap (хлопати, аплодувати);

To giggle (реготати), to whisper (шепотіти) etc.

Of course, using any of the given lexical devices depends on the style of a text translated. They must be reasonably used to fully and faithfully convey the idea and content of the source language text.

IX. Transformations in translation

Translating transformations are the numerous and qualitatively various interlingual reorganization which are carried out for achievement of translating equivalence regardless of divergences in the formal and semantic systems of two languages.

In the science of translation the term «transformation» is used in order to show the relations between the initial and eventual linguistic expressions. It supposes replacement of one form of expression by the other one in the process of translation that is figuratively called reorganization or transformation. Thus, the translating transformations described below are the interlingual operations of «re-expression of the sense» essentially.

There are different points of view concerning the division of transformations according to their type, but the most of authors agree that the basic types of transformations are the grammatical and lexical ones. In the same turn, these transformations are divided into subspecies.

It is necessary to underline that such the division is to a great extent approximate and conditional. These two types of elementary translating transformations are rarely met «in a pure form» in practice as they usually combine with each other assuming the character of difficult and complex transformations.

I. Grammatical transformations

The translation from one language into the other one is impossible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations are, first of all, reorganization of the sentence that is the change of its structure, and various replacements of both syntactic and morphological order. Grammatical transformations are conditioned by the different reasons of grammatical and lexical character, although the basic part is acted by the grammatical factors that suppose the distinctions in the composition of languages.

At comparison of grammatical categories and forms of the English and Ukrainian languages the following phenomena are usually revealed:

1) The absence of one or the other category in one of the used languages.

2) The partial coincidence.

3) The complete coincidence.

A necessity in grammatical transformations naturally appears in the first and second cases only. In Ukrainian in comparison with English, such grammatical categories are absent, as the article or gerund, as well as the infinitive and participating complexes and absolute nominative construction.

The partial coincidence or lack of coincidence in the meaning and usage of the corresponding forms and constructions also requires grammatical transformations. Such phenomena can be attributed to this as the partial lack of coincidence of category of number, the partial lack of coincidence in the forms of passive construction, incomplete coincidence of forms of infinitive and participle, some distinctions in expression of modality etc.

In the first turn, the article will be considered as it, both definite and indefinite one, regardless of the extremely abstract meaning, quite often requires the semantic expression in translation. As it is generally known that articles have the pronominal origin as the definite article originated from the demonstrative pronoun, and indefinite article arose from the indefinite pronoun, which ascends to the numeral «one». These primary meanings of the articles are sometimes become apparent in their modern use. In such cases their lexical meaning must be passed in translation, otherwise the Ukrainian sentence would be incomplete and inexact one, as a denotational meaning of the articles semantically is inalienable part of all the semantic content of the utterance. Its historical connection with a numeral is evident in the example below:

Yet H. G. (Wells) had not an enemy on earth.

Однак у Герберта не було жодного ворога у світі.

The meaning of the definite article quite often is required to be passed in translation, especially when it stands before a numeral.

Only in the fields where talent cannot be hidden have the young conquered – the theatre, music, computers etc.

Молодь висувається тільки у тих випадках, коли не можна приховати природного обдарування, а саме до театральної, музичної, комп’ютерної та іншої діяльності.

From the examples mentioned above it is clearly seen that the ignoring of lexical, and sometimes the grammatical meaning of the article, would result in the incomplete or inexact transmission of the content during translation.

In Ukrainian the infinitive complexes, which are so widespread in English, are absent. There are the examples of translation of the infinitive complex with the preposition «for»:

On its return journey the spacecraft must be accelerated to some 25,000 m.p.h. for it to enter the earth’s orbit.

При поверненні швидкість космічного корабля повинна бути доведена приблизно до 25 000 міль за годину, щоб він зміг перейти на земну орбіту.

In this case the infinitive complex is translated by the additional final clause.

However, the grammatical transformations are often necessary at passing the corresponding forms and constructions on account of some divergences in their meaning and use. For example, such divergences are observed in the use of category of number.

United Nations Secretary General has strongly criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa.

Генеральний секретар ООН піддав критиці Південну Африку, Родезію і Португалію за політику, яку вони проводять в Африці.

The noun «policy» has no plural form, as the word «policy» is the form of a plural from a noun «politician» that is a political figure.

In regard to the uncountable nouns, especially those that express abstract notions, then there the quantity of lacks of coincidence can be greater. For example:

Ink	Чорнила
Money	Гроші
News	Новини
To keep the minutes	Вести протокол
To live in the suburbs	Жити в пригороді
On the outskirts	На околиці
Grapes	Виноград

The divergence is revealed in some cases of the infinitive usage. The Ukrainian infinitive has neither perfect, nor continuous form.

Thus, all the phenomena mentioned above such as the absence of the corresponding form, partial coincidence, distinctions in a character and use of form cause a necessity in grammatical transformations during translation. Grammatical transformations can be subdivided into two types that are transpositions and replacements.

I.1. Transpositions.

A transposition as a type of translating transformation that means the change of arrangement (sequence order) of linguistic elements in the text of translation in comparison with the target language text. The words, word-combinations, parts of compound sentence and independent sentences in the structure of a text are the elements that can be exposed to transposition. The transpositions are caused by the whole range of reasons. The main reason of it is distinction in the structure of the sentence in the English and Ukrainian languages.

The English sentence, as a rule, begins from a subject (or group of subjects), then a predicate (or group of predicates) follows, i.e. the main is the center of report. The secondary information of place adverbials and adverbials modifier of time is placed in the end.

The order of words of the Ukrainian sentence is different as the secondary part of a sentence (place adverbials and adverbials modifier of time stand in the first place, then a predicate follows by them and the subject reserves the place at the end). It has to be taken into account during translation. This phenomenon is known under the name of «communicative partition of the sentence».

The most usual case of transposition is the change of order of words and word-combinations in the structure of a sentence, which is related to the communicative partition. For example:

Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere.

Невідомо звідки з’явились відерця з-під патоки.

Sometimes in the process of translation there is a transposition of that or the other word from one sentence into the other one, as, for example, in the following case:

...I put on this hat that I’d bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks.

Я надів червоний капелюх, який вранці купив у Нью-Йорку. Це був мисливський капелюх, з дуже-дуже довгим козирком.

The possibility of such transference is conditioned by the repetition of noun «капелюх», to which the moved adjective «червоний» related in two contiguous sentences.

During translation the phenomenon of changing the order of following of the parts of difficult sentence both the main clause and subordinate one often takes place. For example:

If he ever gets married, his own wife’ll probably call him «Ackley».

Мабуть, і дружина буде називати його «Еклі» – якщо він коли-небудь одружиться.

In the English text the subordinate clause precedes to the main one, in Ukrainian translation the situation is vice versa, as the main clause precedes to the dependent one. There are the opposite cases as well.

Finally, as it was indicated, the independent sentences in the composition of a text can be subjected to transposition. For example:

«You goin’ to court this morning?» asked Jem. We had strolled over.

Ми вже прийшли. – «Ви в суд підете?» – спитав Джим.

In this case, the necessity of transposition is caused by the form of Past Perfect in the second clause of the English text that expresses the meaning of precedence of the given action to the action designated in the first sentence. As the Ukrainian form «прийшли» does not express this meaning, saving of the initial sequence order of the sentences in translation would result in semantic distortion (the action designated by a verb «прийшли», would be perceived as subsequent, but no preceding to the action designated by a verb «спитав») that causes the necessity of transposition of the sentences.

Transpositions, as the type of translating transformation is met very often, however, usually they are accompanied by transformations of the other character, in particular, by replacements, the examples of which will be given below.

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