XI. Translation equivalence and equivalents

These restrictions are formed by laws of connection of the verbal meanings that are peculiar to the given language. Such combinations are not equivalents as each of their components has different meaning.

To keep one’s distance	Знати своє місце; триматися поодаль
To keep one’s ears open	Бути на сторожі; бути напоготові
To keep oneself to oneself	Бути нетовариським, відлюдкуватим; триматися окремо; цуратися людей

In the examples given above, the word «to keep» cannot be substituted by any other word closely related to its meaning, as it will lead to incongruity of the words and distortion of the Phraseological units’ meaning.

There are several ways of translating the Phraseological units:

1. Translation by Choosing Absolute Equivalents:

This is a way of translating by which every component part of the source language Phraseological unit is kept in the target language. The words also create the main images, the expressiveness and the figurative meaning. Translating by equivalents is used when the Phraseological units, which originate from the same source in the both languages, are translated.

The Phraseological word-combinations may originate:

A labour of Sisyphus	Сізіфова праця (важка але марна праця)
Cassandra’s warning	Застереження Каландри (правдиві застереження, яким не вірять)
Pandora’s Box	Скринька Пандори або Пандорина скринька (джерело бід)

The golden age	Золотий вік
The die is cast	Жереб кинуто
To cross the Rubicon	Перейти Рубікон (приймати важливе рішення)
I came, I saw, I conquered	Прийшов, побачив, переміг

A lost sheep	Заблудла вівця
Ten commandments	Десять заповідей
The thirty pieces of silver	Тридцять срібняків

4. From the contemporary literary or historical source relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic):

French	After us the deluge	Після нас хоч потоп
One’s place in the sun	Місце під сонцем
The game is worth the candle	Гра варта свічок
Spanish	Blue blood	Блакитна кров
The fifth column	П’ята колона

To bury a hatchet	Закопати томагавк/укласти мир (F.Cooper)
Cowards die many times before their deaths	Боягузи вмирають багато разів (W. Shakespeare)
To reign in Hell is better than to serve in Heaven	Краще панувати в пеклі, ніж слугувати в раю (J. Milton)

2. Translation by Choosing Near Equivalents:

The meaning of a considerable number of the Phraseological units originating in both languages from a common source may sometimes have, unlike absolute equivalents, one or even most of their components different, than in the target language.

In broad daylight	Серед білого дня
As pale as paper	Блідий мов стіна
One’s own flesh and bone	Рідна кровинка
Baker’s/printer’s dozen	Чортова дюжина
As short as a dog’s tail	Короткий, як осінній день
Measure twice, cut once	Сім раз відміряй, один раз відріж
To make a long story short	Коротко кажучи

3. Translation by Choosing Genuine idiomatic Analogies:

The Phraseological units are in most cases easily given corresponding analogies in the target language. As a matter of fact the Phraseological units are usually very close in their connotative meaning in English and Ukrainian languages. These common and similar traits of the Phraseological units serve a proof of their being genuine analogies.

To have the ready tongue	За словом у кишеню не лізти
Like mistress, like maid	Яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає
To keep body and soul together	Ледь зводити кінці з кінцями
There is no use crying over spilt milk	Що з воза впало, те пропало

The choice of an analogy is translator’s decision and is predetermined by the style of a text.

Not for time or money	Ні за що в світі / ні за які гроші
Don’t cross the bridge before you come to it	Не кажи «гоп», доки не перестрибнеш
He that lies down with dogs must rise up with fleas	З ким поведешся, від того й наберешся

4. Translation by Choosing Approximate analogies:

The meaning of the Phraseological units can be expressed by means of only approximate analogies, i.e. in a descriptive way.

To lose one’s breath	Кидати слова на вітер
King words butter no parsnips	Годувати байками солов’я
To make a cat’s paw of something	Чужими руками жар вигрібати

5. Descriptive translation of idiomatic and set expressions:

The meaning of a considerable number of the Phraseological units can be conveyed through explication only i.e. in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of the meaning contained in the source language unit, it can be conveyed in the target language as follows:

By a single word	Red blood	Мужність, відвага, хоробрість
To set a limit to smth	Обмежувати, стримувати
Out of a clear blue of the sky	Раптом, зненацька
By a free combination of words	Short odds	Майже рівні шанси
To sell someone short	Недооцінювати когось
To shoot Niagara	Вдаватися до ризикованих дій
By a sentence or a longer explanation	To cut off with a shilling	Залишити без спадщини

Thus, the aim of translating of the Phraseological expressions is to fully convey their lexical meaning in the target language and where possible, to convey the structural peculiarities, the figurativeness, the expressiveness, and the connotative meaning of the source language Phraseological units.

Besides, it is necessary to take into account that modern linguistics is formed as anthropological science, which includes research of the linguistic phenomena and language processes in indissoluble connection with the necessities of human communicative activity that is accompanied by the realization of cognitive processes.

In accordance with positions of cognitive science, a man must be studied as a system of processing information, and person’s behaviour should be depicted and explained in the terms of the internal states, which are physically shown, or are found under observation and are interpreted as getting, processing, storing and mobilization of information for the rational decision of language tasks.

The system of senses that falls into the sphere of individual knowledge or beliefs is formed as a result of cognitive activity. Knowledge, which is got in practice directly, are re-interpreted on the basis of the available empirical experience, that influence upon displaying information by one language user and perception it by the other one.

National and cultural components of the lexical meanings of words can represent the way of life, culture peculiarities, traditions, and beliefs etc. of language users and is the cause of different associations they have.

The Phraseological units are formed on the basis of such a figurative presentation of reality that represents daily empirical, historical or mental experience of language group that is certainly related to its culture and traditions, as the subject of nomination and linguistic activity is always the subject of national culture.

Thus, when analyzing the features of cultural connotation, it is necessary to take into account that the system of images fixed in the Phraseological structure of language serves for accumulation of world views and is definitely related to the material, social or mental culture of the given language association and therefore testifies to its cultural and national traditions.

The figurative basis serves the way of embodying the cultural and national specificity of the Phraseological units, while interpretation of the figurative basis in sign, cultural and national «space» of the given language group serves the way of pointing at that specificity.

Thus the basis of cognitive foundation for translating the Phraseological units is made up by the semantics that stipulates understanding of specific devices connected with using language and those means by which they interact with the other aspects of functioning the thought.

A very important role is given up to the emotional position of a language user. This emotional position serves as a sort of communicative intention.

The cognitive sphere of the meaning includes stylistic one, which is linked with the communicative situation fixed in a language speaker or listener’s memory. The expressive effect the Phraseological unit has stipulates knowledge that the denotant of a given expression takes place in the world and acts as internal and external base for subject of cognition. This knowledge serves as a premise of the whole cognitive process. The expressive function of a language is a means of setting relations between intentions of language subject and his knowledge of the real events that happens in the world, of language coding rules and stylistic usage of language devices.

Thus, the expressiveness of the Phraseological units is a category that relates to the cognitive aspect of language as its base includes cognitive intentions with the aggregate of user’s relations to the denotation. The basic intention for the Phraseological units’ expressiveness can cover feeling of encouraging or discouraging, agreeing or disagreeing, honesty or dishonesty etc. For example, the meaning of a lexeme «black» means «bad», «terrible»:

Devil is not so black as he is painted	Не такий страшний чорт, як його малюють
To depict in black colours	Представляти в поганому світлі
To look black	Мати незадоволений, похмурий, злий вигляд
Black conscience	Чорна, нечиста совість

The lexeme «white» can be used for denoting cowardice and at the same time for designating purity and innocence, as in the given examples:

A white liver	Малодушність, боягузтво
A white feather	Боягузтво
To show the white feather	Злякатися, виявити малодушність
A white man	Порядна, добре вихована людина
A white lie	Невинна брехня, брехня заради порятунку
To put on a white sheet	Каятися, визнавати прилюдно свої помилки

The expressiveness the Phraseological units is oriented at the cognitive plan of the language and mental activity as the latter one indicates signals about intentions of a language subject which include evaluating and emotive attitude to the denotation. This relation is subjective in a listener’s language consciousness dependently on his ability to «reproduce» mental structures that are identical to communicative intent.

The specifics of using language devices and conformities of their functioning as well as their influence on people’s behaviour are considered by the pragmatics. The analysis of the pragmatic aspect of any utterance must take into account the following positions:

2.Pragmatic situation that is defined as complex of external terms of intercourse which are presented in a speaker’s consciousness from the moment of realizing the linguistic act and to the result of pragmatic effect.

3.Illocutive act that represents executing a certain action (request, question, gratitude etc.).

4.Perlocutive act that defines influence the receiver get in the situation of communication.

The illocutive intent, which can be attained in a communicative act, is considerably determined by the semantics of words that are chosen for using by a language user.

The Phraseological units are one of the most productive devices of forming second denominations that have such an important feature as to «impose» a particular understanding of the world.

Synthesizing the character of processes of creation of the secondary meanings is connected with purposeful activity of its subject.

This activity is oriented not only on filling the nominative and conceptual effects, but also on filling up pragmatic influencing, that is caused by the Phraseological unit in the mind of a recipient. Evaluating events that take place in the world is indispensable attribute of human activity.

Thus, the meaning of the Phraseological unit must include evaluation as the process of their forming is accompanied by defining the denoting subject.

In the act of interlingual communication, a bilingual-mediator takes part except the Source and Receptor. A translator’s task is to form the target language text that will become the identical replacement of the source language text.

Therefore, the specifics of pragmatic relations in the process of translation is linked either with the necessity to reproduce the pragmatics of the source language text in the target language text or with the special pragmatic position of a translator. In the process of translation, the special attitude to a text is formed in the translator’s mind. A translator tries to get and pass information of the source language text objectively and faithfully.

The pragmatics of the source language text is the most important part of its content, that’s why its reproduction is an obligatory condition of achieving faithfulness of translation.

A translator’s aim is to «neutralize» his personal attitude to the events described and to provide the most objective evaluation of the source language text pragmatics from the position of neutral Receptor. A translator consciously tries to mark off an influence from personal attitudes and emotions and to reproduce the pragmatic factors of the source language text as a cognitive operation.

However, it does not mean that personality of a translator (his ethics, professional views etc.) have no any relationship to his practical activity. On the contrary, all these factors are very important and define translator’s successful work. This peculiar pragmatic attitude to the text translated, is fully oriented to its complete reproduction and makes the most important aspect of its pragmatics. In the process of translation, the personality of a translator, his professional interests to the work and satisfaction by its results are determined by the semantics and source language text pragmatics as well as his ability to decide tasks of translation properly. For example, a translator can feel positive emotions when he successfully reproduced the author’s thoughts and feelings even if his attitude to the author is negative.

Thus, the pragmatic orientation on the source language text is the most important but not the single aspect of the pragmatics of translation. In many cases, the orientation of a translator on the participants of communicative act (Source and Receptor of translation) influences on its process and result, when he appears as the full fledged participant of an act of intercourse and solves his personal pragmatic orientation.

There is a list of the widely spread Phraseological units in English and Ukrainian languages below:

1. Much ado about nothing 2. To be in accord 3. On no account 4. To settle accounts 5. Extremes meets 6. Actions speak louder that words 7. As blind as a bat 8. In cold blood 9. A seamy side 10. A hot potato 11. What can’t be cured must be endured 12. A bird in the hand is worth two іn the bush / Half a loaf is better than no bread 13. A walking encyclopedia 14. The end justifies the means 15. Of two evils choose the best 16. With a naked eye 17. Dry facts 18. Facts are stubborn things 19. A fault confessed is half redressed 20. In full feather 21. As fit as a fiddle 22. If you dance you must pay the fiddler 23. Butterfingers 24. To one’s fingers end’s 25. Between two fires 26. To go through fire and water 27. No flying from fate 28. Second wind 29. As white as a ghost 30. All is well that ends well 31. The wear and tear of time 32. In the soup 33. No sooner said that done 34. A slip of a pen 35. A slip of a tongue 36. That’s where the shoe pinches 37. Make hay while the sun shines / Strike the iron while it is hot 38. Out of the frying-pan into the fire 39. A frog in the throat 40. An apple-pie order 41. Easy come, easy go 42. Hercules’ labour 43. Safe and sound 44. Neither rhyme no reason 45. Lies have short legs 46. Between the cup and the lip a morsel may slip 47. The devil isn’t so black as he is painted 48. To be in the same boat 49. A hard nut to crack 50. To ask for trouble 51. Like father, like son 52. Not to know chalk from cheese 53. A man can die but once 54. Haste makes waste 55. A sound mind in a sound body 56. A labour of Sisyphus 57. Cassandra’s warning 58. I came, I saw, I conquered 59. One’s place in the sun 60. To reign in Hell better than to serve in Heaven 61. Caesar’s wife must be beyond suspicion 62. To have the ready tongue 63. A crooked stick throws a crooked shadow 64. Every man has a fool in his sleeve 65. Every man has his faults 66. To make a cat’s paw of smth 67. To be finger and thumb 68. What’s Hecuba to me 69. Does your mother know you are out 70. The belly is not filled with fair words 71. To walk on air 72. The road to Hell is paved with good intentions 73. As you make your bed so you must lie on it 74. A little bird told me 75. To get cold feet 76. To come clean 77. Тo put on a white sheet 78. To face the music 79. To be the last straw 80. Blank verse 81. Play fast and loose 82. Not worth a red cent 83. A new broom 84. The sword of Damocles 85. To cross the Rubicon 86. To win the wooden spoon 87. Hobson’s choice 88. To talk nineteen to the dozen 89. Dutch courage 90. Let’s call a spade a spade 91. To cry for the moon 92. Once in a blue moon 93. To smell a rat 94. To leave smb in the lurch 95. The lion’s share 96. To grasp the nettle 97. To be born with a silver spoon in the mouth 98. To give the sack to smb. 99. Let sleeping dogs lie 100. As cool as a cucumber 101. To be in full swing 102. A nice kettle of fish 103. Under the nose 104. At sixes and sevens 105. To be in two minds 106. To make a mountain of a molehill 107. Тo see through blue glasses 108. Тo see through rose-coloured glasses 109. Bag and baggage 110. To catch smb red-handed 111. An apple of discord 112. By hook or by crook 113. To square the circle 114. A storm in the tea-cup 115. Dog days 116. Тo act as a red rag acts upon a bull 117. It’s no use crying over the spilt milk 118. A peeping Tom 119. Do you see any green in my eye? 120. In a nutshell 121. A mare’s nest 122. Neck or nothing 123. Donkey’s years 124. Mark my words! 125. Red in the face 126. To be in the dark 127. Let’s call it a day 128. Every day is not Sunday 129. Birds of a feather 130. To show the white feather 131. Vanity of vanities 132. To err is human 133. Never is a long day 134. When pigs fly 135. Don’t beat about the bush 136. With flying colours 137. A prodigal son 138. To paint the town red 139. All his geese are swans 140. He can’t say «boo» to the goose 141. That cat won’t jump 142. As the tree so the fruit 143. To bark up the wrong tree 144. To buy a pig in a poke 145. Let the cat out of the bag 146. I’ll eat my hat 147. Rain or shine 148. As light as a feather 149. To fish for compliments 150. To keep a low profile 151. To sow the seeds of discord 152. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today 153. It never rains but it pours 154. One swallow doesn’t make a summer 155. To be on the safe side 156. Тo be yellow about the gills 157. To feel like a fish out of the water 158. As the crow flies 159. Іn the nick of time 160. To get butterflies in one’s stomach 161. As poor as a church mouse 162. All cats are grey in the dark 163. Not to see a step beyond one’s nose 164. Not for love or money 165. Either win the saddle or lose the horse 166. Many hands make work light 167. To cast pearls before swine 168. To be born under a lucky star 169. To cherish a viper in one’s bosom 170. Neither fish nor flesh 171. To cross the Styx 172. Pandora’s box 173. After us the deluge 174. Black ingratitude 175. Тo make the air blue 176. Better a witty fool than a foolish wit 177. As short as a dog’s tail 178. Measure twice, cut once 179. To make a long story short 180. You cannot catch an old bird with chaff 181. Тrue blue will never stain 182. He that mischief hatches mischief catches 183. To keep body and soul together 184. There is no use crying over spilt milk 185. Don’t cross the bridges before you come to them 186. He that lies down with dogs must rise up with fleas 187. Аs green as a gooseberry 188. King words butter no parsnips 189. Тo beat the air 190. А fly in the ointment 191. To lose one’s breath 192. More power to your elbow 193. To cut off with a shilling 194. Аs gray as a bat’s wing 195. А round peg in a square hole 196. Тo blush like a black dog 197. Green-eyed monster 198. To cut to the quick 199. Тo give smb. hell 200. As mad as a March hare

1. Багато шуму з нічого 2. Мати однакові смаки 3. Ні в якому випадку 4. Зводити рахунки 5. Протилежності притягуються 6. Вчинки говорять самі за себе 7. Зовсім сліпий 8. Холоднокровно 9. Темний (непривабливий) бік 10. Неприємна тема 11. Те, чого не можна подолати, треба перетерпіти 12. Краще синиця в руках, ніж журавель у небі / На безриб’ї і рак риба 13. Ходяча енциклопедія 14. Мета виправдовує засоби 15. З поміж двох зол обирай найменше 16. Неозброєним оком 17. Голі факти 18. Факти річ вперта 19. За зізнання – половина покарання 20. При повному параді 21. В гарному настрої 22. Той, хто платить, заказує музику 23. Діряві руки 24. З голови до ніг 25. Між двох вогнів 26. Ускочити в халепу 27. Від долі не втечеш 28. Друге дихання 29. Білий як полотно 30. Добре те, що добре закінчується 31. Життєві труднощі 32. В скрутному становищі / в біді 33. Сказано – зроблено 34. Описка 35. Обмовка 36. Знати в чому суть справи / знати де собака зарита 37. Коси коса, доки роса / Куй залізо, доки гаряче 38. З вогню у полум’я 39. Хрипота 40. Зразковий (повний) порядок 41. Як нажите, так і прожите 42. Геркулесова праця 43. Цілий і неушкоджений 44. Ні складу, ні ладу 45. На брехні далеко не уїдеш 46. Не радій передчасно / Не кажи «гоп», доки не перестрибнеш 47. Не такий страшний чорт, як його малюють 48. Бути в однаковому становищі 49. Міцний горішок 50. Напрошуватись на неприємності 51. Який батько, такий і син 52. Ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку 53. Двом смертям не бути, а однієї не оминути 54. Поспішиш – людей насмішиш 55. В здоровому тілі здоровий дух 56. Сізіфова праця 57. Застереження Касандри 58. Прийшов, побачив, переміг 59. Місце під сонцем 60. Краще панувати в пеклі, ніж прислуговувати в раю 61. Дружина Цезаря поза підозрою 62. За словом в кишеню не лізти 63. Який Сава, така й слава 64. І на сонці бувають плями 65. Людини без вад не буває 66. Чужими руками жар вигрібати 67. Водою не розлити 68. Моя хата скраю 69. Ще не доріс / Молоко на губах не висохло 70. Одними словами ситий не будеш 71. Ніг під собою не відчувати 72. Дорога в пекло вимощена добрими намірами 73. Що посієш, те й пожнеш 74. Чутками світ повниться 75. Злякатися 76. Зізнатися 77. Каятися, визнавати свої помилки 78. Без вагань зустрічати труднощі 79. Бути останньою краплею 80. Білий вірш 81. Вести нечесну (подвійну) гру 82. Ламаного гроша не вартий 83. Нова мітла 84. Дамоклів меч 85. Перетнути Рубікон 86. Зайняти останнє місце 87. Відсутність вибору 88. Говорити без упину 89. Море по коліно 90. Називати речі своїми іменами 91. Вимагати (бажати) неможливого 92. Рідко / раз на рік 93. Відчувати недобре 94. Кинути напризволяще 95. Левина доля 96. Рішуче братися за складну справу 97. Народитись у сорочці 98. Звільнити 99. Не буди лихо, доки тихо 100. Незворушний / спокійний 101. У повному розпалі 102. Оце так історія! 103. Таємно 104. Безладно / догори дном 105. Знаходитися в нерішучості 106. Робити з мухи слона 107. Песимістично дивитися на речі 108. Омтимістично дивитися на речі 109. З усіма пожитками 110. Зловити на гарячому 111. Яблуко розбрату 112. Всіма правдами й неправдами 113. Намагатись зробити неможливе 114. Буря в стакані води 115. Спекотні дні у червні 116. Сильно дратувати, виводити з себе 117. Зробленого (втраченого) не повернеш 118. Надмірно цікава людина 119. Невже я здаюся таким легковірним? 120. Коротенько / в двох словах 121. Ілюзія /омана 122. Або пан, або пропав 123. Ціла вічність 124. Запам’ятай мої слова 125. Багровий від гніву 126. Перебувати в невідомості 127. На сьогодні досить! 128. Не кожен день свято 129. Одного поля ягода 130. Проявити малодушність 131. Суєта суєт 132. Людині властиво помилятися 133. Так вже й ніколи! 134. Після дощику в четвер 135. Кажи прямо 136. Переможно 137. Блудний син 138. Влаштувати пиятику / загуляти 139. Він (завжди) перебільшує 140. Він і мухи не образить 141. Цей номер не пройде 142. Яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає 143. Звертатися «не за адресою» 144. Покупати кота в мішку 145. Проговоритися 146. Клянусь! / Присягаюсь! 147. За будь-якої погоди 148. Легкий як пір’їнка 149. Напрошуватись на компліменти 150. Триматись у тіні 151. Сіяти ворожнечу (розбрат) 152. Ніколи не відкладай на завтра те, що можна зробити сьогодні 153. Біда не приходить одна 154. Одна ластівка погоди не робить 155. Про всяк випадок 156. Мати нездоровий вигляд 157. Почуватися не в своїй тарілці 158. По прямій / навпростець 159. Саме вчасно! 160. Нервуватися 161. Бідний як церковна миша 162. Вночі що сіре, те й вовк 163. Далі свого носа нічого не бачити 164. Ні за які гроші / ні за що в світі 165. Або перемогу здобути, або дома не бути 166. Гуртом і батька легше бити 167. Кидати перла перед свинями 168. Народитися під щасливою зіркою 169. Пригріти гадюку в пазусі 170. Ні риба ні м’ясо 171. Канути в Лету; піти в небуття 172. Скринька Пандори 173. Після нас хоч потоп 174. Чорна невдячність 175. Лаяти на всі заставки 176. Краще дотепний дурень, ніж дурний дотепник 177. Короткий, як осінній день 178. Сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж 179. Коротко кажучи 180. Старого горобця на полові не зловиш 181. Порядна людина не підведе 182. Хто іншим лиха бажає, сам лихо має 183. Ледь зводити кінці з кінцями 184. Що з воза впало, те пропало 185. Не поспішай поперед батька в пекло 186. З ким поведешся, від того й наберешся 187. Молодий / зелений 188. Годувати байками солов’я 189. Товкти воду в ступі 190. Ложка дьогтю в бочці з медом 191. Кидати слова на вітер 192. Ні пуху, ні луски 193. Залишити без спадщини 194. Сірий, як миша 195. Людина не на своєму місці 196. Бути безсоромним 197. Заздрість 198. Зачепити за живе 199. Розпекти до червоного жару 200. Божевільний / не при своєму розумі