ПЕРЕДМОВА. Supplementary reading

Literature

Vocabulary

Supplementary reading

Unit VI

Unit V

Unit IV

Unit III

Unit II

Unit I

Передмова

Contents

Теми реферативних виступів

Заняття 19

Теми реферативних виступів

1. Специфіка об`єктів і суб`єктів валютного ринку.
2. Захисні оговорки у валютному страхуванні.

Тема: Платіжний баланс (2 години).

Питання:

1. Загальна характеристика та структура платіжного балансу.

2. Методи балансування та регулювання платіжного балансу.

Література

1. Гроші та кредит. Підручник./ За ред. проф. Б. С. Івасіва.– Тернопіль: Карт–бланш, 2000. – С. 502–510.
2. Общая теория денег и кредита: Учебник./ Под ред. проф. Е.Ф. Жукова.– М.:Банки и биржи, ЮНИТИ, 1995.– С.
3. Іванов В. М. Деньги и кредит: Курс лекций.­ – 2-е изд., К.: МАУП, 2001– С. 107–108.
4. Демківський А.В. Економічна теорія: фінансово-кредитна система, грошовий обіг, інфляція. – К.:НМК ВО, 1991.– С.60–84.
5. Денежное обращение и кредит капиталистических стран: Учебник для ВУЗов. / Под ред. проф. Л.Н. Красавиной – М.: Финансы, 1977.– С.144–180.

1. Особливості кредитування зовнішньої торгівлі.
2. Міжнародний довгостроковий кредит.

Crop industry

Preparing the soil

Types of soil

The value of humus

Preparing the ground

Soil tools and equipment

Questions and tasks for comprehension

Rotation

Making the most of the soil

Four year rotation

Three year rotation

Frames and greenhouses

Frames

Greenhouses

The Herbs

Questions and tasks for comprehension

General notes on vegetables

Beetroot

Carrots

Marrows

Onions

Peppers

Potatoes

Questions and tasks for comprehension

Cereal crops

Selecting quality seed of cereal grains

Wheat

Questions and tasks for comprehension

Barley

Oats

Rye

Maize

Questions and tasks for comprehension

Oilseed crops

Sunflower

I. History

II. Uses

III. Growth habit

IV. Environment requirements

V. Cultural practices

VI. Harvesting

VII. Economics of production and markets

Questions and tasks for comprehension

Gardening terms

Reference section

Pests and diseases

Навчальний посібник з англійської мови “Reading on agronomy” розраховано для студентів та магістрантів вищих навчальних закладів аграрного профілю за спеціальністю ”Агрономія”.

Ціль посібника – навчити студентів читати та перекладати тексти, вести бесіду за спеціальністю. Посібник складається з семи розділів. Кожний розділ містить оригінальні матеріали з наукових статей, підручників, сторінок Інтернету за питаннями біології та агрономії. Тематика розділів посібника допоможе студентам дізнатися, що таке сівооборот, як правильно організовувати теплиці та парники. Які існують особливості культивації тієї чи іншої культури. Якими хворобами можуть хворіти сільськогосподарські культури та як треба боротися з цими хворобами, які комахи шкодять зросту та розвитку культур та засоби боротьби з цими шкідниками.

Після текстового матеріалу кожний з перших шести розділів пропонує студентам виконати ряд вправ та завдань, які виявляють вміння студента здобувати інформацію з прочитаних текстів та допомагають повторити та закріпити опрацьований матеріал.

Сьомий розділ містить тексти для перекладу та анотування.

Після розділів міститься тлумачний словник основних агрономічних термінів.

Довідковий розділ та словник посібника полегшують засвоєння матеріалу, що надається розділами.

Unit 1

In this unit you will find the answers for the following questions:

- Are plants important for mankind?

- How can we use plants?

- How to select a particular crop and variety to grow?

- What types of soil are there?

- How to add lime to the soil?

- What is the value of humus?

- What kinds of soil tools and equipment are there?

Crop industry

Plants are autotrophic organisms, forming the base of all food chains. They are important not only for food but also in maintaining the oxygen levels of our atmosphere as a byproduct of photosynthesis.

Plants provide all of our food through the products they produce, either directly as plant products (as in grains, fruits, and vegetables), or indirectly through animal products (meat, milk, eggs).

Plants also contribute to our quality of life through shaping our environment as natural vegetation or ornamental species, through making play areas more enjoyable (turf), and recreation activities (gardening).

Plants provide us with such things as: food, fossil fuels, medicines, building shelters, fibres, beverages, perfumes, dyes, spices, soaps.

Crop plants are any plants grown for economic reasons. This involves any part of a plant; seeds, roots and tubers, leaves, fruit, stems, and sap. Agriculture uses plants to produce food, fibre, or recreational opportunities.

Crop Selection

In order to select a particular crop and variety to grow, many factors must be considered. Selection is hardly a simple process, and involves experience, current information, and maybe a bit of luck.

Plant types should be:

• suited to the climate of a particular area,
• resistant to disease or plant pests in the region,
• appropriate to the rotation sequence for the field,
• suitable to the producers needs, equipment, and time schedule,
• and matched to the market demand at the time (if it is to be sold as a cash crop).

A general key to determine climate suitability of certain crops and varieties is the days required for a plant to mature or "Days To Maturity". The DTM is the time interval between seeding and crop maturity (ready to be swathed).

The average (and lowest) number of frost-free days for a particular crop production area, along with knowledge of the type of spring in a particular growing season are strong indicators of the type of crops able to be grown. A wet, late, and perhaps cool spring in areas would encourage selection of varieties or crops which require fewer days to maturity (maybe varieties of barley or Polish canola).

Expected yields are a concern to any farmer. Producers must weigh a loss in yield against a gain in quality, or hardiness (or vice versa) in order to get the most benefit from their land. In order to accomplish this, producers must know the specific conditions of their growing area, their market demands, and their own goals in order to make appropriate decisions.

Time taken to analyze a particular situation is time well spent for a producer, allowing him or her flexibility and profitability; knowing is half the battle.

Preparing the soil.

It is most unusual to find a plot, where the soil is in exactly the right condition to grow top quality crops. Sometimes it is too heavy, and badly drained, so that surplus water is left around the roots of the plants in winter which will cause them to decay. On the other hand if the soil is sandy, it is quite likely that during the summer months it will be unable to hold the amount of water that the crops need to make vigorous growth. Some soils lack lime, others have too much of it; both these conditions must be corrected.

Soil Testing

As a general rule, soils can be divided into four main groups. There is clay, containing about one third clay particles; rich loam, which has no more than one fifth clay particles; light, of which about three-quarters is sand; and calcare­ous, which has a very high chalk or lime content. The first requirement is to discover the pH value: this is the hydrogen ion concentration of moisture in the soil, which is respons­ible for the degree of acidity or alkalinity.

The home kit consists of a bottle of indicator solution; a quantity of barium sulphate; some distilled water; glass test tubes; and a coloured chart. Take small quantities of soil from five or six different places and mix them in a bucket to give an average reading; there can be quite wide variations in pH in even quite a small plot. If the soil to be tested is wet, let it dry out a bit; a crumbly texture is best. Fill an upright test tube half way to the top with some of the soil, add a small amount of barium sulphate, then fill it almost to the top with distilled water and add a few drops of the indicator. Put a rubber stopper on the end of the tube, shake up the contents and allow them to settle, and then compare the colour to those on the chart.

Where the soil shows a lime deficiency, treat it with 3kg of hydrated lime per 9sq m of ground for each hydrogen ion value. Most crops prefer well limed earth in winter.

Types of Soil

Clay These drain badly because the particles are too heavy to let water through. In extreme cases, where water lies on the surface in puddles, it may be necessary to lay land drains. Normally adding coarse sand is sufficient, and equal quantities of peat or compost by bulk. Five to eight centimeters of this mixture dig into the top 25cm should give a soil which can be worked comfortably. If you repeat this treat­ment every year, a very good loam soil will result. Add some humus every year to prevent the soil returning to its heavy clay state.

Sandy soils The problem here is that the soil drains too fast, and the answer is to dig in as much water retaining material as possible. Peat, leaf-mould, compost or manure should be dug in every year — 8 to 15cm at first, less as the soil begins to improve.

Loam It is lucky to have a good loam soil - do not let it deteriorate. 5cm of humus each year will replace the goodness that has been taken out of it.

Subsoils The top layer of the earth is topsoil. If you start to dig down, it will begin to change colour, and this area is called the subsoil. This should not be disturbed, and if it has to be, keep it separate from the topsoil. If you do not have a sufficient depth of topsoil to grow all the crops that you want — 20cm is usually adequate — it can only be built up slowly: a further 5cm dug in each year, turning up 5cm of subsoil at the same time. Do not try to convert a greater amount of the subsoil in one season, because it simply cannot be done.

Hardpan This is a completely hard subsoil, and the water will be quite unable to drain through it. To drain the land, you must dig a hole through the hardpan in a non-growing area. It will be necessary to use a pickaxe, and you will know when you are through the hardpan because the digging will get notice­ably easier. The hole should be 1 to 1¹/₄ m in diameter and may need to be 2 ¹/₂ m deep.

When you have dug the hole, fill it with rubble and broken bricks. Then lay the land drains in a herring bone pattern, the spine of the herring bone emptying into the hole, which is known as a soak away. The drains should be packed around with pebbles, and be at least 20cm under the surface of the soil, and should have a fall of at least one in sixty. Once the drains are in place, they should last at least ten years, and very likely will survive for twenty.

Adding Lime to the Soil

Apart from its ability to correct the acidity of soil, lime has the power to release the various plant foods already in the soil, and also to improve the physical condition of the soil by breaking up the clay particles. On a very heavy soil caustic (unhydrated) lime will be of more use than hydrated lime. It is obtainable from builders' merchants and it must be kept dry. It is dug in when the soil is dry, and is activated by such moisture as there is in the ground. Without lime, a heavy soil will become still heavier in the winter rains, and so deprive the plant roots of the oxygen they need.

Lime has a tendency to be washed down by rain, and where it is used in hydrated form it should be applied to the surface in mid-winter after the ground has been dug and the surface left in a rough condition, to be broken down by wind and frost.

Soil may also be tested for nitrogen, potash and phosphorus deficiencies so that the correct requirements of each individual crop can be supplied in the right amounts. If nitrogen is lacking, the plants will have their growth stunted, and will look sickly; if there is not enough potash, there will be a lot of soft lush growth which is very weak and will not stand cold or resist disease, and if there is not enough phosphorus the plant roots will not be able to develop properly.

To correct a nitrogen deficiency, give a 120 per sq m dressing with sulphate of ammonia for every 1% deficiency. To ensure the correct phosphate content, the ground should be given a dressing of superphosphate of lime at a rate of 100kg per sqm; and to correct a potash deficiency, give a dressing of sulphate of potash at a rate of 60g per sq m.

If the soil shows a deficiency of each of these plant foods, a compound fertilizer may be made up to the exact requirements, and applied in spring before the crops are planted. Soil testing can be done on the spot with a special kit, but as with the pH test, check various areas of the plot as not all may have the same deficiency.

The Value of Humus

Humus may take the form of decayed leaves or straw that have been broken down (composted) by an activator. Peat is also useful, but as it is slightly acid, lime should be added as well. Peat can be used to improve all types of soil and has a very beneficial action on roots, allowing them to grow unrestricted. Sphagnum moss peats are those which are only partly decomposed, and these are useful where it is necessary to retain moisture. Other valuable sources of plant foods are: for those living near the coast, seaweed (chopped) has traces of nitrogen and potash; and in the industrial parts of the country, wool shoddy is rich in nitrogen. Used hops and spent mushroom compost are usually available to those living in the country, and these both have a variety of plant foods. Straw composted with an activator also provides both humus and nutrients.

To compost straw, get a bale and shake it out well in a corner of the plot, preferably where it can be surrounded with boards or corrugated iron sheeting. This will not only keep it tidy but will protect it from drying winds so that the straw can be more quickly composted. As the straw is spread out, soak it with water then spread a layer 30cm deep and sprinkle some of the chemical activator over it. Keep doing this until the heap has been built up to about l^½m, It will soon begin to heat up and in ten days will be ready to turn, shaking out the straw and activator, giving more water if necessary, and remaking the heap. Allow it to heat up for a further ten days before repeating the process, and in three weeks the straw will have become dark brown and the bits will be quite short and will be easy to dig into the ground.

The ultimate aim with any soil is to bring it to a fine tilth, deeply enriched with moisture holding humus, active in bacteria, and spongy and friable when you press it in your hands. It will be well drained but also able to hold moisture, and will be ready to work in all weathers other than snow and ice. It will also warm up with the first spring sunshine so that your plants will get away to an early start.

Preparing the Ground

When we first make the decision to grow vegetables, for example it will be necessary to wait until the autumn to make a proper start. If the space is not being used for anything else, we can cultivate quick-growing salad crops, and maybe carrots and spinach; but a proper vegetable growing cycle must be started in the autumn.

Start to dig the soil before hard frosts set in; the ground must be cleared, especially of perennial weeds, and the lime content increased if this is necessary.

If the land has not been deeply worked in the past, it is best to double dig. The area should be marked out into sections of one sq m and soil to a depth of two spades should be taken from the section at one end and carried to the far end. Soil from the next section to two spade's depth is moved into the first, now empty, trench, and so on, until the earth from the original trench is used to fill the trench at the far end. Add humus and fertilizers as the digging proceeds, and leave the surface rough so that the winter frosts can break it down.

The process of double digging is invaluable because it allows the air to circulate freely through the earth to a considerable depth, but when the spring comes, especially if there has been heavy rain during the winter, it will be necessary to break up the surface with a hoe, which will also help to keep down annual weeds.

Mulching between the rows also helps to keep down weeds; in addition this enriches the soil below as the organic material is carried down by rain and worms.

Table1: Fertilizers and their food value.

FERTILIZER	ACTION	NITROGEN CONTENT	PHOSPHATIC CONTENT	POTASH CONTENT
Basic Slag	Slow	15%
Bone Meal	Slow	5%	20%
Dried Blood	Medium	10%
Farmyard Manure	Slow	5%	25%	5%
Fish Meal	Quick	10%	8%	7%
Guano	Quick	15%	10%	7%
Kainite	Slow			13%
Nitrate of Soda	Quick	16%
Nitro-Chalk	Quick	16%
Potassium Nitrate	Quick	14%		40%
Poultry Manure	Medium	3%	2%	6%
Rape Meal	Slow	5%	2%	1%
Seaweed	Slow	5%		1-5%
Shoddy (Wool)	Slow	12%
Sulphate of Ammonia	Quick	20%
Sulphate of Potash	Medium			50%
Superphosphate	Medium		15%
Used Hops	Slow	4%	2%

Soil Tools and Equipment.

Modern tools have two great advantages over their predecessors – their lightness, and the ease with which they can be cleaned. Do not think however that because the tools are made of stainless steel that they need not be cleaned regularly – wipe them clean with a rag when you have finished with them for the day, and it is worth while giving them an occasional wipe with an oily cloth if they are to continue to give good service for many years to come.

Here are some soil tools and equipment. Read and remember their uses.

Rotator – for soil cultivation.

Fork – for pricking the surface forking in peat and fertilizers, and for lifting crops such as potatoes, parsnips and leeks. Spade – for turning over the soil an autumn and for turning over the compost heap, for digging the plot initially if this is necessary.

Rake – for getting out weeds and stones after the digging has been done for raking seed beds to a fine tilt, and for taking out drills and covering them after sowing.

Дата добавления: 2015-05-23