Two syllable words

20.

The syllable is one or more speech sound forming a single uninterrupted unit, which may be a word or a commonly subdivision of a word. In English a syllable is formed by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more consonants and by a word-final sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant. Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table, paper – 2 syl. The English Syllable has
onset: bar/more/; Initial segment of a syllable (Optional)
nucleus: or/are Central segment of a syllable (Obligatory)
coda: ought/ art Closing segment of a syllable (Optional). English syllable: starts with either 1, or 2 or even 3 consonants. nset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable.
Coda
Final: any consonant except for h,r,w,j may be final consonant. / 2 kinds of
Final Cluster: pre-final+final/final+post final
Pre-finals(m,n,nasal,l,s: bump,belt) /
Post-finals(s,z,t,d,th: bets,beds)

So the structure of English Syllable is asOnset Nucleus Coda Ex. "texts, sixths, helped, bonds, play, strings, students"

Functions of s-s:

1) constitutive - constitute words, phrases & s-ces through the comb-n of their prosodic features: loudness-stress, pitch-tone, duration-length & tempo. May be stressed, unstr-ed, high,mid, low, rising, falling, long, short. These pros-c features constitute the stress pattern of words, tonal& rhythmic str-re of an ut-ce, help to peform dist-ve variations on the s-le level. 2) distinctive & differentiatory f-n - word dis-ve f-n of a s-le. There are many comb-n dist-ed by means of the dif-ce in the place of the syl-c boundary. Close juncture – b-n sounds within one s-le, open – b-n two s-s, marked with+.

3) identificatory - is conditioned by the pron-n of the speaker. The listener understands if he perceives the correct s-c boundary – ‘syllabodisjuncture’ might rain – my train.

21. The syllabic structure has two aspects, which are inseparable from each other: syllable formation and syllable division. The syllable is one or more speech sound forming a single uninterrupted unit, which may be a word or a commonly subdivision of a word. In English a syllable is formed by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more consonants and by a word-final sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant. Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table, paper – 2 syl.

syllable division - this is a way of working out how to spell most two-syllable words and what happens when adding suffixes.

Vowels are: a e i o u and sometimes y.

They can be short or long, e.g. căp or cāpe, hŏp or hōpe. ‘Y’ acts like a vowel if it sounds like a vowel, e.g. in ‘cry’ (ī) and ‘happy’ (ē) or (ĭ), depending on your accent.

A syllable: is a beat in a word, e.g. pic nic.

Syllables can be open as in ‘no’or ‘be ’.

Here the vowel is long because there is no consonant wall blocking it.

Or they can be closed as in ‘not’and ‘bet ’.

Here we have a consonant wall blocking in the vowel and keeping it short.

In words of two syllables, if we treat each syllable independently, we can easily work out how to spell and read them.

To split words logically into syllables, mark the vowel with a ‘V’ for vowel and mark the consonants between the vowels with a ‘C’ for consonant.

If there are two consonants, always divide between the consonants as in: vc/cv met/ric Here, the first syllable is closed and therefore has a short vowel sound – met. If there is only one consonant between the vowels, we usually divide before the consonant like this: v/cv o/pen The first syllable is open: ‘o’, therefore it has a long vowel sound (ō).

Regrettably, there are some exceptions, e.g. ‘robin’,but these tend to be common words, which are either already known or can be learnt as exceptions.

Adding suffixes A suffix is a letter, or group of letters added to a base or root word. There are vowel suffixes that start with a vowel, e.g. ‘ing’, ‘ed’, ‘y’, ‘able’or consonant suffixes that start with a consonant, e.g. ‘ly’ ‘ness’, ‘ful’, ‘ment’.The spelling of suffixes never changes.

22. The accentual structure of words has three aspects: the physical (acoustic) nature of word accent; the position of the accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic words; the degrees of word accent.

Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed ws, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable: Stress is defined differently by different authors.

Word stress (WS) can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is usually a vowel.

All English words divided into mono- di- poly- syllabic. In most disyllabic words the accent falls on the initial syllable: mother, colour. In disyl word with prefix which has lost its meaning the stress falls on the secjnd syl.: become, begin. In most words of three or four syl the accent falls into third syllable from the end of the word: family, cinema. Most words with more than 4 syl have to stress” secondary and primary: intonation, unkind.

Types of English word stress according to its degree. • primary — the strongest• secondary — the second strongest, partial, • weak — all the other degrees. The syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress are termed stressed, while syllables with weak stress are called, somewhat inaccurately, unstressed.

23. Intonation is a complex unity of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech melody and voice timbre. Each syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a certain pitch level and bears a definite amount of loudness. Intonation patterns serve to actualize sense groups. Intonation is a language universal. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.

The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complex.

In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups.

Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:

• the prehead

• the head (the 1st accented syllable)

• the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.)

• the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern.

• the tail – conveys no particular information

The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes.

The number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them are equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center). It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and phonetically.

24. The functions of intonation:

§ constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)

§ delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).

§ distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:

→ to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function)

→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)

→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)

→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)

the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning).

→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance.

The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of an utterance.

Each component of intonation has its distinctive function.

25. Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English origin of the speaker.
The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated with the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence.
Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables — enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables — proclitics. In English, as a rule, only initial unstressed syllables cling to the follow­ing stressed syllable, non-initial unstressed syllables are usually enclitics.
Each sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly. Proclitics are pronounced faster than enclitics.
Rhythm is connected with sentence stress. Under the influence of rhythm words which are normally pronounced with two equally strong stresses may lose one of them, or may have their word stress realized differently, e. g.,Picca'dilly —,Piccadilly 'Circus — 'close to,Picca'dilly

26.Structural, semantic and sound devices for producing rhythmicality.
Phonetic devices make impression of rhythmicality and add considerably to the musical quality a poem has when it is read aloud:
1)The rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other.
2)The assonance occurs when a poet introduces imperfect rhymes often employed deliberatly to avoid the jingling sound of a too insistent rhyme pattern.
3)Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at frequent intervals.
4)Sound symbolism (imitation of the sounds of animals) makes the description very vivid.
Structural or syntactical devices indicate the way the whole poem has been built, thus helping the rhythm to fulfil it`s constitutive function.

1)Repetition: poets often repeat single lines or words at intervals to emphasize a particular idea. Pepetition is to be found in poetry which is aiming at special musical effects or when a poet wants us to pay very close attention to something.
2)Syntactical parallelism helps to increase rhythmicality.
3)Inversion, the unusual word order specially chosen to emphasize the logical centre of the phrase.
4)Polysyndeton is syntactical stylistic device which actually stimulates rhythmicality of a poem by the repetition of phrases or intonation groups beginning with the same conjunctions `and` or `or`.
Semantic devices- impart high artistic and aesthetic value to any work of art including poetry:
1)Simile is a direct comparison which can be recognized by the use of the words `like` and `as`.
2)Metaphor is a stylistic figure of speech which is rather like simile, except that the comparison is not direct but implied and makes the effect more striking.
3)Intensification is a special choice of words to show the increase of feelings, emotions or actions.
4)Personification occurs when inanimate objects are given a human form or human feelings or actions.

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