III. Citations. Quotations, Paraphrases and Summaries

Find some scientific articles related to the topic of your article. You will use them when writing your article.

You will need to do some library research, which also includes the Internet. How can you find the scholarly articles? Many Portable Document Format files (PDF) of articles can be downloaded from the Internet. You should you searching engines, such as Google, Yandex, etc.

For example, you try to find articles about trilobites using Google. Do not put just the word “trilobite”, but try to narrow results with using words “trilobite PDF.” That reduced the sites to smaller amount, some of which included PDFs of scientific articles.

A related search engine that you can also use is Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com), but it often processes sites with restricted access, such as various scientific journals.

Give the reference as soon as you've mentioned in your article the idea or fact you're using, not just at the end of the paragraph. It's often recommended to name the authors ("X says" and "Y argues against X,") and then indicate your own stand ("A more inclusive perspective, however,... ").

You need to keep mentioning authors, pages, dates to show how your ideas are related to those of the experts. You need to identify the source every time, and that applies to Internet sources too. When using any information from Internet you need author and date as well as title and URL.

Be sure to name sources even when you are not using the exact original words. It's often a good idea to mention the author's name. There are many different ways to identify the source in scientific articles. See the examples below.

As Morris puts it in The Human Zoo (1983), "we can always be sure that today's daring innovation will be tomorrow's respectability" (p. 189).

Al-Widyan and Al-Shyoukh [11] conducted an experimental investigation of the transesterification of waste palm oil into biodiesel fuel.

Northrop Frye discusses comedy in terms of the spring spirit, which he defines as the infusion of new life and hope into human awareness of universal problems (Anatomy 163).

The effect was so considerable that “the noise of the cannons in 1894 shattered into pieces the nice dreams of the numerous ministers from the School of Foreign Affairs and also acutely shocked the age-old heart of the Chinese people”(Gao, et al 1992: 5).

As G. Toury suggests, “most texts were selected for ideological reasons” (cited in Gentzler 1993: 126).

In Krathwohl's (1994) terms Bloom provided us with a set of heuristics. According to Krathwohl, “heuristic frameworks are valued for the thought they stimulate, often leading to new insights and understanding” (p. 182).

If you use the author's exact words, enclose them in quotation marks, or indent passages of more than four lines. Try to quote only when the original words are especially memorable. In most cases, use your own words to paraphrase and summarize the idea or results you want to discuss.

To paraphrase means to express someone else's ideas in your own language. To summarize means to distill only the most essential points of someone else's work. When you paraphrase, please remember these two points that you must provide a reference. The paraphrase must be entirely in your own words, and so you should completely alter the sentence structure.

Read and paraphrase the following statements. Please be sure to identify the source.

1. Psychotherapy explores a person's life to bring forth possible contributing causes of depression. During treatment, the therapist helps the patient to become aware of his or her thinking patterns and how they originated.

(Source: Belinda Rowland, Teresa G. Odle. Depression. Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. The Gale Group Inc., Gale, Detroit, 2005).

2. One of the interesting design parameters which influence the efficiency of the steam system as well total requirements on make-up and condensate preheating is the rate of condensate returned to the boiler house.

(Source: Martin Pavlas, Petr Stehlík, Jaroslav Oral, Jirí Klemešc, Jin-Kuk Kim, Barry Firth. Heat integrated heat pumping for biomass gasification processing. Applied Thermal Engineering 30 (2010) 30–35).

3. No single set of guidelines could do justice to the many factors that impact on children’s play, even if it was to focus only on children living in the United States.

(Source: Kenneth R. Ginsburg. The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds. American Academy of Pediatrics Report, October 9, 2006).

When you summarize a passage, you need first to absorb the meaning of the passage and then to express in your own words the most important elements from the original passage. A summary is usually shorter than a paraphrase.

Summarize the information from the following paragraphs. Please be sure to identify the source correctly.

1. The conventional view of the research process is that we first derive a set of hypotheses from a theory, design and conduct a study to test these hypotheses, analyze the data to see if they were confirmed or disconfirmed, and then chronicle this sequence of events in the journal article. If this is how our enterprise actually proceeded, we could write most of the article before we collected the data. We could write the introduction and method sections completely, prepare the results section in skeleton form, leaving spaces to be filled in by the specific numerical results, and have two possible discussion sections ready to go, one for positive results, the other for negative results

(Source: Darley, J. M., Zanna, M. P., & Roediger III, H. L. (Eds). Writing the Empirical Journal Article (2003). The Compleat Academic: A Practical Guide for the Beginning Social Scientist, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association).

2. Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Play is important to healthy brain development. It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers. As they master their world, play helps children develop new competencies that lead to enhanced confidence and the resiliency they will need to face future challenges.

(Source: Kenneth R. Ginsburg. The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds. American Academy of Pediatrics Report, October 9, 2006).

3. Once the scientific knowledge, imported through scientific translation, entered into the cognitive structure of Chinese people, it interacted in many ways with their original structure, enriched their original knowledge structure and world schemata, and deepened or transformed their thought, thus modifying the cultural background of the whole society. Therefore, translation of scientific textbooks in China served to spread scientific knowledge; the accumulation of this knowledge modified people’s knowledge structure; changes in this structure led to the changes in the deep structure of the thought of a nation. Culture changed accordingly.

(Source: Fan Xiangtao. Scientific Translation and its Social Functions: a Descriptive-Functional Approach to Scientific Textbook Translation in China. The Journal of Specialised Translation Issue 7 - January 2007).

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