Pecularities of the written language

· it is carried out in the form of a monologue; the time of the text perception is different; the author has the time to think the text over.

· the written text is characterised by the developed description, beautiful wording, description of details, exact wording.

· it is characterised by the text segmentation, thus the text falls into paragraphers, chapters, books, volumes, syntactical periods.

· the written text is characterised by complex syntactical constructions, use of the participle, the participal complex, infinitive, gerund.

· the absence of ellypses, conjunctions

· the completeness of the information, no incomplete sentences

· repetitions, parallel constructions, inversions.

Meanings of a word

The lexical meaning of any word is the substance of the word which, being reflected in the minds of people who use the language, contains the fixed notion of the thing or process, which this object denotes.

Any word exists in the language in use; thus it developes the so called contextual meaning, which is a meaning, viewed as a category, which is able to acquire the meaning imposed on the word by the context.

Primary or dictionary/first meaning exists both in the language as a system and in the language in use. It can be emotive meaning and exist in the language as a system. It is materialised as denoting the object. Emotive meaning has references, denoting not a phenomena, but feelings and emotions of the speaker to words [I feel so damned lonely!]. Sometimes a word has ermotive meaning only. [She was not a flirt, not even a coquette ]. These words denote a person, who tries to attract the opposite sex. But they both have acquired a derogatory shade of meaning and this shade may grow into indepemdent meaning fixed in dictionaries with special emotive meanings.

Emotional meaning can ber found in language in use only. Thus, a word has a contextual emotive meaning. The context can often show if the word should be taken as an objective expression or if it can arouse emotional meaning. [Or wall, or sweet lovely wall!]. A colourless, everyday term, acquires emotional obertones. Emotive meaning of words plays an important role in stylistics while emotional colouring may be regarded as a stage of emotive meaning. Anything having a strong impact on our senses may be considered as having emotive meaning.

Evaluated meaning is used both in the language as a system and in use. Here words are divided by positive, negative and neutral evaluation.

Figurative meaning exists in language in use only. [No help was need]. The word "help" was used in its figurative meaning, substituiting the word "resque".

Primary and secondary meanings.

Some dictionaries give a very extended list of primary and secondary meanings of a word. It's essential for stylistic purposes to distinguish them as some stylistic devices are built on the interplay of these meanings [inwardly - 1) within; 2) secretly].

Special literary vocabulary and terms.

Terms are easily coined and accepted and the new coinages easily replace the out-of-date ones. Thus we speak about highly conventional character of terms. Characteristic feature of terms is their derived relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art.

A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes and unlike other words it directs the mind to the essential quality of a thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientists. It may be said that terms belong to the style of science, but they can also be found in newspaper style, publicistic and public style. However their functions does change. If it is used in the literature, then a term may become a stylistic device. The function of terms is to indicate the technical pecularities of the subject or to make some references to the occupation of the character.

With the increase of general education and expansion of techniquessome terms have lost their quality as terms and have passed into the common literary or even common vocabulary. This process is called determinization, when words become re-established in their therminological function.

But the terms are used in their normal function in the belles-lettres style; they should be easily understood from the context and the function of these words is not terminological but stylistic.

If a term used in the belles-lettres style sets the reader at odds with the text, we observe a stylistic effect, caused either by a specific use of terms, used in their proper meaning or by the realization of the two meanings.

Poetic and highly literary words

Their main function is to sustain a special evaluated atmosphere of poetry. Poetic words form an insignificant layer of special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words. On the whole they are detached from the common literary vocabulary. The use of poetic words doesn't as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry, but it substitutes its expressiveness.

The common way of creating such words is compounding [young-eyed, rosy-fingered]. Poetic words and expressions are understandable to a limited number of readers. In modern poetry words are often used in strange combinations [the sound of shame].

Archaic words

These words are divided into the three groups: archaic, obsolescent, obsolete. There are three stages in the aging processes of words:

· they become rarely used; they are in the stage of gradually passing out from use; these are the morphological forms belonging to the earlier stage of the development of the language [thee, thou], corresponding verbal endings [thou mak est ], many French borrowings [palfreu]

· they have already gone completely out of use and are still recognised by the English-speaking people. [me thinks = it seems to me, nay = no].

· archaic words proper is no longer recognisable in modern English; such words were in use during the Old English period, are earlier dropped out of the language or have changed in the appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable [losso =lazy fellow].

Obsolescent words are used in different kinds of documents and legal English. Obsolent words are used mostly in poetry. Archaic words are also used to create an evaluated effect. Thus, the use of archaic words is astylistic device. In historical novels they create an atmosphere of the past. In the depiction of events of the present they assume the function of a stylistic device proper. The stylistic functions of the archaic words are based on the temporary perception of the event. Even when used in a terminological aspect they create a special atmosphere in the utterance.

Barbarisms and foreignisms

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin, which haven't been entirely assimilated into the english language. Tey bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the naitive tongue. They form a great part of the English vocabulary. The science studying such words is called etymology. However they are considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language. Barbarisms have become facts of the English vocabulary.

Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary and they are not registered in the english dictionaries and often are to be explained.

Barbarisms are a historical category. Words enter the class of words named barbarisms and many of them gradually merged with the native English vocabulary (conscious, retrogate). Both barbarisms and foreign words are widely used in various styles, but they have mainly local colour, concerning customs and habits describe conditions of life and are referred to concrete events. They are foreignisms in belles-lettres and publicistic.

Literary coinages (none-words)

Neologism is a new word or a new meaning for an established word. When a word or a meaning is fixed in dictionaries, it is no longer new.

Some words are cined to be used at the moment of speech, possessing the property of temporariness. New coinages may become synonyms of some old words or substitute them.

· terminological coinages, indicating new-born concepts, which may result from the science or used with the need to understand the nature of the phenomenon better [computer].

· stylistic coinages are coined because their creators seek expressive utterance [thingism].

· none-words are coined for a particular occasion [I'm wifed in taxes and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousened within the inch of my life].

General principles of standard classification of the English Vocabulary

The vocabulary classification is important for stylistic purposes as some stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspects of words. The wordstock of English can be divided into the three main layers:

· literary

consists of the groups of words, accepted legitimate members of the English Vocabulary; they have no dialectual or local, but bookish character, which made them stable; the literary vocabulary consists of common literary, sewn poetic, archaic words, barbarisms, foreign words and literary coinages.

· neutral

universal character, unrestricted in use; it can be employed in all styles of the languageand in all spheres of activities; it's the most stable layer.

· colloquial

limited to a definite language community or to a special locality; it's aspect is its spoken character, which makes it unstable; this layer consists of common colloquial words, slang, jargonisms, professional words, dialectual words, vulgar words, colloquial coinages.

All these three layers are groupped under the term Standard English Vocabulary. Other groups are regarded as special literary vocabulary [kid - child - infant]. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary form the bulk of the English Vocabulary. They are used both in literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonimy and polysemy. They are fruitful in the production of the new coinages/meanings. The most neutral English words are those of monosyllabic character. The development of conversion is the most productive means of word-building. Unlike all the other groups, the neutral words can be considered as having a special stylistic colouring. Common literary words are mostly used in writting, literary units, standing in opposition to colloquial units. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial one. Yet no objective criteria for it have been worked out. The main distinction between the synonyms remains stylistic. Colloquial words are more emotionally coloured than literary. Neutral words have no degree of emotiveness. Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. For literary words the lower range aproaches the neutral layer and has a tendency to pass to the lower layers. The lines of demarkation between these layers are blurred. Common colloquial vocabulary is considered to be a part of the Standard English Vocabulary. It boards on the neutral and special colloquial vocabulary. Some of the lexical items are close to the non-standrard colloquial groups, such as jargonisms. Other words approach the neutral bulk of the English Vocabulary. Thus, the words "teenager" and "hippie" are colloquial words, passing into the neutral English Vocabulary. Thast is because they are losing their non-standard character, becoming wider recognised.

The spoken language is full of set expressions [to be up to sth.]. The stylistic function of the different layers of the English Vocabulary depends on the interaction when they are opposed to each other. It is interesting that anything written assumes a greater degree of significance, than spoken. If the spoken takes place of the written or vice verse, it is a stylistic device.

Slang

Slang seems to mean everything that lays below the Standard English. There's no more or less satisfactory definition of this ambiguious term. No other European language has singled out a special layer of Vocabulary and named it slang.

Slang is:

· a language of a highly colloquial style laying below the level of educated speech and consisting of words or of current words, employed in some special sense.

· the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low character; thus, slang is represented both as a special vocabulary and a special language, and so, it causes confussion.

Slang requires constant innovation, so that words are replaced by new slangisms. Many words formally labelled as slang have become units of Standard English [kid]. The term "slang" should be used for those forms of English which are distorted in dsome way - phonetically, morphologically or lexically and also to some elements, that can be called overcolloquial. Slang is a deviation from the established low level of the colloquial vocabulary [to take stock in = to be interrupted, orout = nonsense]. There're many kinds of slang - public, house, commercial, military. There is a standard slang, which is a way of speaking, using special words and phrases in some special sense. Here we speak about jargonisms.

A jargon is a term for a group of words existing in every language, aimed at preserving secrecy within one or another social group.

There are mainly old words with the new meanings [louf = hat, greese = money, tiger hunter = gambler]. Jargonisms are social in character and not regional (the jargon of thieves, sportsmen). Jargon remains a foreign language for the outsiders of any social group. Slang needs no translation, while jargon is a code. It sometimes becomes recognized in the literary language of the country [fan, queer]. But on the whole jargonisms are special groups within the non-literary layer of words. There is a common jargon for all social groups, easily understood by everybody.

Professionalisms are used in a definite trade, profession or by people with common interests. They are correlated to terms.

Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English Vocabulary, though terms belong to the literary layer. The thing is that professionalisms remain in circulation within a definite community, while terms belong to science. Professionalism are monosemantic [teens fish = submarin]. Professionalisms are used in emotive descriptions to depict the natural speech of character to show his psychology.

Dialectual words are in the process of the integration into the English Neutral Language, remain beyond its literary boundaries and their use is referred to a definite layer (lower). They are recognised as Standard Colloquial English [lassie = a girl, lad = a young man, duft = silly]. Dialectual words are mostly found in the style of emotive description. Thus they characterised personalities through speech.

Vulgarisms are swear words of an abuisive character [demon, to Hell, goddamn], and obscene words. They are of Anglo-Saxon character and are never to aquire the status of Standard English though they are widely used.

Colloquial coinages or non-words are spontaneous. They are not fixed in dictionaries. They dissapear from the language without a trace. Built by means of affixes they are based on certain semantic changes of words [to be the limit = unbearable]. Semantic changes in word meaning can be really striking [expeculiar = odd].

Phonetic expressive means

Onomatopoeia is the reproduction of the sounds existing in nature and surrounding world (wind, thunder, laughter). There are two types of it:

· direct, which is imitation of sounds produced by animate objects or animals

· indirect, which is a combination of sounds, aimed at making the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. [And the silken, sad, uncertain/Rustling of each purple curtain...] - the repetition of "s" produces the effect of rustling.

Alliteration is aimed at imparting a melodic effect of the utterance, which goes from the repitition of similiar sounds (consonant sounds)particulary at the begining of words. It also aims at giving a logical stress to the main concept (it doesn't bear any lexical or other meaning). Allusion is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore [the fair breeze blew/the white foam flew/the furrow followed free; Sense and Sensibility; to rob Peter to pay Paul].

Rhyme is a repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations in words. In verse rhyming words are usually placed at the end of lines, but the similarity of sound combinations can be different.

· complete or fall rhyme is represented by the identical vowel sound and the following consonant in a stressed syllable [might - write, good - stood].

· incomplete rhyme can be vowel [flesh - fresh - press] and consonant [laugh - prof, have - grave, dear - bear]; it can be percieved only in written form.

· compound is the combination of words is made to sound one word [forget-me-not].

According to the way rhymes are arranged in the context: couplets [ai-ai], triple [a-a-a], cross [a-b-a-b], framing [a-b-b-a]. Internal rhyme are the rhyming words, which are placed within the line [I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flowers]

Rhythm is a frequently or periodicity of contrasting segments of speech of long/short, stressed/unstressed, high/low alterations of similar units. It is the main factor that brings melody into the utterance. Rhythm in verse as a stylistic device is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations. It is determined by the character of syllables the verse contains.

General classification of expressive means and stylistic devices

1. Expressive means and stylistic devices are classified according to the principles of the levels of the language. We distinguish among phonetic, lexical, syntactical devices and expressive means. Lexical stylistic devices and expressive means are classified according to three principles:

· interplay of different types of lexical meaning.

Here we have metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, irony, epithet, zeugma, pun; words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings, not fixed in dictionaries <contextual meaning>. This meaning sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree, that the new meaning becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. The transferred meaning will always depend on the dictionary/logical meaning to a greater or lesser degree. It is the correlation between the two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. In the context the word realizes one meaning. If two meanings are realized, it will make the understanding difficult. When a word realizes the primary logical and derivative meaning we register a stylistic device.

· interplay between the primary dictionary and contextual meanings

This process constitutes the: metaphor, based on the principle of identification of two objects; metonymy, based on the substitution of one object for another; irony, which is a contrary concept.

The interplay of primary and derivative logical meaning <the meaning, which can be registered as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary meaning by means of metaphor and metonymy>. It consists of the following: zeugma, which is the use of the word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to the two adjusted words; pun is a stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. The only reliable distinguishing feature between zeugma and pun is a structural one. Zeugma is a realization of two meanings wth a help of a verb, which is made to refer to different subjects r objects, while pun is more independent and can be realized within the limits of the context, paragraph, text or even the whole novel.

· the interaction of logical <the precise naming of a feature, idea or phenomenon> and emotive <has reference to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards the subject>.

Here we have interjections, exclamatory words, which are words we use when we expressour feelings strongly, which may be said to exist in a language as conventional symbols of human emotions. Also epithet.

Epithet is a stylistic device used to characterize an object, pointing out some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual p;erception and evaluation of these features.

Oxumoron is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense.

Intencification of certain features of the object, one of the qualities of the object in question is made to some degree essential (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis, euphemism).

Simile is based on the characterisation of one, object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things.

Periphrasis has a form of a free word combination or a sentence which substitutes a certain notion or thing.

Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

Hyperbole is based on a deliberate exaggeration of a feature, essential to the object or phenomenon.

The use of set expressions:

Cliche is a commonly used expression that has become hackneyed.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language, which are collected in dictionaries and have typical features such as rhythm, rhyme, alliteration.

Irony is a stylistic device, based on the simultaneous realization of the two logical meanings (dictionary and contextual), but both stay in opposition to each other; thus, the word which has a positive evaluation realizes negative evaluation in the context. [It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket].

The word containing irony is marked by intonation. Irony can be realized by means of separate words, usually adjectives, adverbs or word combination or even by whole sentences. Irony can hardly be trite. Naturally, it is always original. It is used in humorous, satirical, comic prose. Irony is a device, usually used in the belles-lettres, publicistic and newspaper style. Irony mustn't be confused with humour. Irony produces a satirical effect, which is always negative, and it is the function of the text, while humour always causes laughter and produces a positive evaluaton of the object described.

Expressive means based on the interaction of the primary and derivative meanings

Derivative logical meaning can be regarded as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary one by means of metaphor or metonymy. In the context a word realizes one meaning, if two meanings are realized, it mixes the conversation. And when a word realizes the primary logical and derivative meanings, we register a stylistic device. Such interaction between the derivative and logical meanings constitutes a polysemantic stylistic device, when a word materializes several meanings in the context [Than hate me, you will, if ever now. Now while the world is bent by deeds to cross]. The primary meaning of the word "hate" is to "dislike strongly". This basic meaning has brought to life some derivatives [to bear malice to, to feel a repulsive attitude]. All these derivative meanings interact with the primary one and this network of meanings constitutes the polysemantic effect.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical, but different semantic relations to the two adjusted words [The patient failed to pay him a visit and a fee]. Zeugma is usually realized withinb the limits of one and the same sentence and is used in emotive styles (humorous, prose, poetry). The function of zeugma is to create a humorous effect. Zeugma is often used in the advertising and headlines to attract attention.

Expressive means and stylistic devices based on the interaction of emotive and primary meanings

Lexical stylistic devices include epithets, oxumoron, interjections. The main feature is that all of them realize to some extent the combination of primary dictionary and subjective emotive evaluating meanings.

Logical meaning is the precise meaning of the idea, objest, the name by which we recognize a word.

Emotive meaning materializes a concept of the word, but unlike logical meaning it has references not to the things or phenomena, but to feelings and emotions of the speaker towards the thing or to his emotions. Therefore the emotive meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through their evaluation.

Emotive meaning is registered in the dictionary and is embedded in the structure of the word. "Good" has a positive emotive meaning.

Emotional meaning is in the language in use only. It can't be registered in a dictionary; each word has either positive or negative meaning.

Evaluated meaning can be positive or negative. Very often language evaluated meaning, situational and emotional meanings overlap.

Figurative meaning is a concept developed through a kind of impression which has been produced by the concept [a warm man].

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of emotions. They can be divided into primary <devoided of the language meaning and having only emotive meaning> [Ah! Oh!]. We regard them as negative. In the text they have emotive meaning; derivative - partly retained logical meaning, but emotional meaning is stronger [boy, well, fine]. Interjections may be divided into colloquial [gosh, well, why], bookish [alas], neutral [oh, ah].

Classification of epithets

Epithet is an interplay of logical, emotive, evaluative and figurative meanings. It has the following structure:

adjective + noun [wild wind, loud ocean]

verb + adverb [he laughed hartedly]

There is a difference between the logical attribution and emotive. Logical attribution describes a quality inherent in the object [white snow], while epithet describes quality which is not or partially inherent to the object [heart-burning smile].

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