Consonant Phonemes. Description of Principal Variants

Strictly speaking, it is impossible to give an exact and detailed description of a sound within the limits of a short definition, because not a single sound is pronounced identically even twice. Sounds undergo changes due to the individual manner and even mood of the speaker and due to the distribution in which every sound exists in the language.

The first step to learn a sound is to isolate it. It means that for teaching purposes we single out the principal, or typical variant of the phoneme as a segment of the system, which is conventionally free from any influences­. Then a detailed description of this phoneme should be carried out by means of simultaneous comparison with the similar sound of the mother tongue. The next stage is the mastering of the sound, which is done by teaching the students to pronounce the sound in a definite set of contexts in which this sound occurs. The final stage is to automatize the newly acquired abilities of the students.

Consonants are best of all learnt if the teacher directs the attention of the students to tactile and muscular sensations of the organs of speech. In teaching to articulate sounds, diagrams and tables are very helpful.

Occlusive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Plosives) /p, b, t, d, k, g/

/p, b/

I. In the articulation of /p/ the vocal cords do not vibrate, therefore /p/ is voiceless, but the force of exhalation and the muscular tension is great, /p/ is fortis.

II. The lips are brought together and form a complete obstruction, /p/ is
labial, bilabial. In the pronunciation of the Russian /п, б/ the lips are
in not spread and they are less tense.

III. The obstruction is broken with a kind of explosion, /p/ is occlusive
(plosive, or stop).

(1) In the production of /p/ noise prevails over voice, /p/ is a noise
consonant.

(2) There is only one place of articulation in the /p/ production, so it
is unicentral.

IV. The air passes out of the mouth cavity, /p/ is oral.

/b/ is pronounced in the similar way, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate, the force of exhalation is not great and the muscular tension is not strong, therefore /b/ is voiced — lenis labial, bilabial, oc­clusive, noise, unicentral, oral.

The English /p/ is pronounced with aspiration, when it is followed by a vowel in a stressed syllable and not preceded by /s/.

The Russian /п/ is pronounced without aspiration. Aspiration is a slight puff breath, which is heard immediately after the "explosion" is accomplished. That is, when the contact is released, the glottis is still open, the air escapes from mouth cavity with a plosion.

English (b, d, g) are fully voiced in the initial position before a vowel and in intervocalic positions: /bet/ /li:də/. They are partly devoiced word final position: /bed/ /bæg/ /eb/.

In the terminal position the Russian /6/ can be devoiced almost cor pletely: e.g. гриб /грип/, дуб /дуп/, etc.

The English /p, b/ are never soft, whereas in Russian there are two independent phonemes /п — п'/ and /б — б'/. It can be proved by existence of such pairs as: бил — был, пил — пыл, etc.

Soft articulation of the consonant is called palatalization. Its simultaneous mechanism for /п, б/ closure is the following: as soon as the lipsare pressed to form a complete obstruction — primary focus, the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate (front secondary focus). To avoid palatalization of /p, b/ in the initial position when they are followed by front vowels it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:

peel — пыл — пил

bill — был — бил

Graphic Equivalents of the /p, b/ Phonemes

/p/ is pronounced when spelt as:

p pen /pen/ — перо

pp happy /'hæpı/ — счастливый

gh hiccough /'hık Λ p/ — икота

/p/ is not pronounced:

(1) in the following words:

cupboard /'k Λ pəd/ — шкаф, raspberry /'ra:zbərı/ — малина, receipt /rı'si:t/ — расписка

(2) in Greek words before n, s, t:

pneumonia /nju'məunjə/ — воспаление легких, pneumatic /nju'mætık/ - пневматический, psalm /sa:m/ — псалом, Ptolemy /'tυləmı/ — Птолемей

/b/ is pronounced when spelt as:

b be /bi:/ — быть

bb ebb /eb/ — убывать

/b/ is not pronounced after m and before t:

lamb /læm/ — ягненок, plumber /'рl Λ mə/ — водопроводчик, comb /kəum/ — гребень, bomb /bυm/ — бомба, debt /det/ — долг, doubt /daut/ — сомнение, subtle /'s Λ tl/ — тонкий, хитрый

/t, d/

I. /t/ is voiceless fortis, /d/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar;

III. occlusive (plosive, or stop) (1) noise, (2)
unicentral;

IV. oral.

The English /t/ is pronounced with aspiration, the Russian /т/ is not aspirated.

The English /t, d/ are never soft, whereas in the Russian language there are two independent phonemes: /т/ and /т'/, /д/ and /д'/. It can be provedby the existence of such minimal pairs, as:

брат — брать дома — Дёма

The English /t, d/ are apical: the tip of the tongue is against the alveolar ridge, the Russian /т, д/ are dorsal: the blade of tongue touches the upper teeth, the tip being passive and lowered.

To avoid palatalization f the English /t, d/ in the initial position, when they are followed by front vowels, it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:

ты — tea /ti:/ тим — Tim /tim/ дик — Dick /dik/

тын — tin /tin/ тиф — teeth /ti:θ/ дед — dead /ded/

тик — tick /tik/ дим — deem /di:m/ дел — dell /del/

Graphic Equivalents of the /t, d/ Phonemes

/t/ is pronounced when spelt as:

t take /teik/ — брать

tt better /'betə/ — лучше

ed stopped /stυpt/ — остановился

th Thames /temz/ — Темза, Thomas /tomas/ — Томас

/t/ is not pronounced:

(1) in the following words:

often /'o:fn/ — часто, Christmas /krisməs/ — рождество, boat­swain /'bəusn/ — боцман, soften /'sυfn/ — смягчать, bankruptcy /'bæŋkrəpsı/ — банкротство

(2) in words ending in -stle, -sten:

listen /'lisn/ — слушать, hasten /'heısn/ — спешить, castle /'ka:sl/ — замок, ostler /'υslə/ — конюх

(3) in French borrowings:

restaurant /'restro:ŋ/ — ресторан, закладывать, trait /trei, treit/ — черта, bouquet /'bukeı/ — букет

/d/ is pronounced when spelt as:

d do /du:/ — делать

dd add /æd/ — добавлять

ed begged /begd/ — просил

ddh buddhism /'budızm/ — буддизм

/d/ is not pronounced in the following words:

handsome /'hænsəm/ — красивый, Guildford /'gilfəd/ — Гилдфорд, Windsor /wınzə/ — Виндзор

/k, g/

I. /k/ is voiceless fortis, /g/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, backlingual velar — the back part of the tongue is pressed
against the soft palate, or velum;

III. occlusive (plosive, or stop) (1) noise, (2) unicentral;

IV. oral.

The English /r/ is aspirated.

The Russian /к/ is pronounced without aspiration.

The Russian /г/ is fully voiced in initial position and devoiced almost completely in the final position: год, рог.

The Russian /к', г'/ are pronounced with a more advanced position of the tongue, the central part of the tongue is pressed against the juncture of the hard, and soft palate — palatalization.

To avoid palatalization of the English /k, g/ it is advisable to do exer­cises of the following type:

акын — кино — keen

кило — keel

кипа — keep

To observe the correct degree of aspiration of /p, t, k/ the following exercises are recommended:

1. Strongest aspiration in initial position, before a long vowel or a diphthong:

tie, toe, party, taper, coat, tart, patter, cape

2. Less strong aspiration is manifested in the devoicing of /1, r, w, j/ after /p, t, k/:

pray, proper, creep, try, quick, pleat, crow, clip, clean, queen

3. Less strong aspiration is manifested before a short vowel:

pity, bick, cut

4. Practically no aspiration:

(a) after /s/: stop, spit, score, sport, scope;

(b) in the final position: top, pit, cope, port, coke

Graphic Equivalents of the /k, g/ Phonemes

/k/ is pronounced when spelt:

k keep /ki:p/ — держать, иметь

с before а, о, u:

can /kæn/ — мочь, быть в состоянии, coat /kaut/ — пиджак, пальто, cut /k Λ t/ — порез

с in terminal position:

music /'mju:zık/ — музыка

ck black /blæk/ — черный, lock /lυk/ — замок

ch in a number of Latin and Greek words:

chemist /'kemıst/ — химик, character /'kærəktə/ — характеp, scheme /ski:m/ — план, проект

qu quick /kwık/ — быстрый

cqu acquaintance /ə'kweıntəns/ — знакомство

cc account /ə'kaunt/ — счет в банке

sc sceptic /'skeptik/ — скептик

x =/ks/ except /ık'sept/ — исключать

gh hough /hυk/ — поджилки

/k/ is not pronounced:

(1) before n in initial position: knife /naif/ — нож

(2) in the following words:

indict /ın'dait/ — обвинять, victuals /'vıtlz/ — съестные припасы, muscle /'m Λ sl/ — мускул

/g/ is pronounced when spelt:

(1) g before a, o, u, before a consonant and in terminal position:

go /gəо/ — ход, ходьба, good /gud/ — добро, благо, leg /leg/ — нога, significant /sig'nıfıkənt/ — значительный

(2) but also in the words:

get /get/ — доставать, girl /gз:1/ — девочка, gild /gıld/ — золотить, give /gıv/ — давать, gig /gıg/ — кабриолет

gg egg/eg/ — яйцо

gu guard /ga:d/ — охрана

gh ghost /gəust/ — привидение

x =/gz/ examine /ig'zæmın/ — рассматривать, осматривать

/g/ is not pronounced:

(1) before n in initial and final positions:

gnat /næt/ — комар, feign /feın/ — притворяться, sign /saın/ — знак

(2) when spelt as:

ng singer /'sıŋə/ — певец, tongue /t Λ ŋ/ — язык

gm in the Greek words such as:

diaphragm /'daıəfræm/ — диафрагма, paradigm /'pærədaım/ —
пример, образец, phlegm /flem/ — мокрота

gh high /haı/ — высокий, sigh /saı/ — вздыхать, plough /plau/ — пахать

Occlusive Nasal Sonorants /m, n, ŋ/

In the /m, n, ŋ/ phonemes only the second principle of classification is different.

/m/ is labial, bilabial: the lips are slightly pressed together, forming a complete

obstruction.

/n/ is lingual, forelingual apical, alveolar: the tip of the tongue touch­es the alveolar ridge.

/ŋ/ is backlingual, velar: the back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum.

All the other principles (I, III, IV) are similar.

I. in the articulation of /m, n, ŋ/ voice prevails over noise, so they are sonorants;

I1. see above;

III. /m, n, ŋ/ are occlusive (plosives, or stops);

IV. /m, n, ŋ/ are nasal: because the soft palate in the articulation of
/m, n, ŋ/ is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cavity.
TheEnglish /m, n/ are longer than the Russian /м, н/ and louder in terminalpositions; cf.:

doom /du:m/ — дум /дум/ balm /ba:m/ — бам /бам/

The pronunciation of the English /ŋ/ presents difficulties for Russian students. There is no similar sound in the Russian language, /ŋ/ is articulated by the back part of the tongue, which is pressed against the soft palate and thus a complete obstruction is formed for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. It passes out of the nasal cavity. The tip of the tongue and the middle part of the tongue do not participate in the articulation of this sound. To prevent possible mistakes, care should be taken (a) to watch the position of the tip of the tongue, which is to be lowered, (b) to pronounce the final /ŋ/ as one sound.

It is advisable to do the following exercises:

1. kŋ — kŋ — kŋ — gŋ — gŋ — gŋ — dŋ — dŋ — dŋ

2. sıŋŋŋŋıŋ

pıŋŋŋŋıŋ
bıŋŋŋŋıŋ

dıŋŋŋŋıŋ

3. sıŋ — sæŋ — sυŋ — s Λ ŋ

sıŋz — sæŋz — sυŋz — s Λ ŋz

sıŋ — sæŋ — sυŋ — s Λ ŋ

4. /ŋ — ŋk/

θıŋ — θıŋk s Λ ŋ — s Λ ŋk

ræŋ — ræŋ sıŋıŋ — sıŋkıŋ

5. /ŋ — ŋk/

siŋ — sin s Λ ŋ — s Λ n

ræŋ — ræn gυŋ — gυn

hæŋ — hænd rıbıŋ — rυbın

Graphic Equivalents of the /m, n, ŋ/ Phonemes

/m/ is pronounced when spelt:

m meat /mi:t/ — мясо

mm summer /'s Λ mə/— лето

mb comb /kəum/ — гребень

mn autumn /'o:təm/ — осень

/n/ is pronounced when spelt:

n no /nəu/ — нет

nn dinner /'dınə/ — обед

en written /'rıtn/ — написанный

on button /'b Λ tn/ — пуговица

/n/ is not pronounced in the words:

damn /dæm/ — проклятье, solemn /'sυlem/ — торжественный

/ŋ/ is prounouced when spelt:

ng long /lυŋ/ — длинный, strong /stroŋ/ — сильный

nk sink /siŋk/ — раковина

ing writing /'raıtıŋ/ — писание, reading /'ri:dıŋ/ — чтение

ngue tongue /t Λ ŋ/ — язык

/ŋ/ is pronounced, when ng is in the terminal position or immediately followed by a vowel (with the exception of the degrees of comparison of adjectives, where /g/ is pronounced), cf.:

younger /'j Λ ŋgə/, longer /'lυŋgə/, singular /'sıŋgjulə/, but: working in the garden /'wз:kıŋ in ðə,ga:dn/, coming out /'к Λ mıŋ,aut/

In such combinations, the uvula takes part in the articulation of the sound /ŋ/.

/ŋg/ /ŋ/

younger 'getting,on

longer 'peering,anxiously

singular 'working in the,garden

'coming,out

Constrictive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Fricatives)

/s, z, f, v, θ, ð, h, ς, З/

/s, z/

I. /s/ is voiceless fortis, /z/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar: the tip

the tongue rises to the alveolar ridge, the sides of the

tongue form a closure against the upper side teeth;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a round nar
rowing;

IV. oral.

The /s, z/ phonemes are pronounced with a round narrowing or a groove, which is formed with the tip and the blade are held close to the alveolar ridge. The sides of the tongue are raised forming a short and narrow groovelike or "round" depression — narrowing.

The Russian /с, з/ are pronounced with the blade of the tongue close to the upper teeth (round narrowing). The tip of the tongue is passive and lowered (dorsal position).

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