Graphic Equivalents of the /s, z/ Phonemes

/s/ is pronounced when spelt:

s speak /spi:k/ — говорить

ss pass /pa:s/ — проход, путь

с before e, i, y: certainly /'sз:tnlı/ — конечно, непременно, circle /'sз:kl/ — круг, cynik /'sınık/ — циник

sc scene /si:n/ — место действия (в пьесе, романе и т. д.), scissors /'sızəz/ — ножницы, scythe /saıð/ — коса (серп), abscess /'æbsıs/ — нарыв

sch in the word schism /sızm/ — раскол, ересь

ces in the middle of the word Leicester /lestə/

tz in quartz /kwo:ts/ — кварц

/s/ is not pronounced:

(1) in the words:

isle /aıl/, island /'aılənd/ — остров, aisle /aıl/

(2) in French borrowings:

corps /ko:/ — корпус, chamois /'ςæmi/ — замша

/z/ is pronounced when spelt:

z zeal /zi:l/ — рвение

s if terminal, or followed by vowels or voiced consonants: houses /hauzız/—дома, husband /'h Λ zbənd/ — муж, walls /wo:lz/ — стены

ss in the words:

dessert /dı'zз:t/ — десерт, dissolve /dı'zυlv/ — растворять, hussar /hu'za:/ — гусар, possess /pə'zes/ — владеть, scissors /'sızəz/ — нож­ницы

/f, v/

I. /f/ is voiceless fortis, /v/ is voiced lenis;

II. labial, labio-dental: the lower lip makes a light

contact with the upper front teeth;

III.constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat narrowing;

IV. oral.

The narrowing between the upper teeth and the lower lip is flat or slit type. Care should be taken not to devoice /v/ in terminal position. Cf.:

rove /rəuv/ — ров /рёв/, of /υv/— шов

Graphic Equivalents of the /f, v/ Phonemes

/f/ is pronounced when spelt:

f fork /fo:k/ — вилка

ff off /o:f/ — более удаленный, дальний

ph physics /'fızıks/ — физика

pph sapphire /'sæfaıə/ — сапфир

ugh enough /ı'n Λ f/ — достаточный, laugh /la:f/ — смеяться, cough

/ko:f, kυf/ — кашлять, draught /draft/ — сквозняк

/f/ is not pronounced in the words: halfpenny /'help(ə)nı/ — полпенса, halfpence /'heııpəns/

/v/ is pronounced when spelt:

v view /vju:/ — вид

f of /υv/ — от, о, об (preposition)

ph nephew /'nevju:/, but also /'nefju:/ — племянник, Stephen /'sti:vən/ — Стивен

/θ, ð/

I. /θ/ is voiceless fortis, /ð/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, forelingual, apical, interdental;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat or slit narrowing: the
escapes over the whole surface of the tongue;

IV. oral.

There are no similar sounds in the Russian lan­guage. The place

of incomplete obstructions is be­tween the tip of the tongue which

may be slightly projected for /θ/ and the rear of the upper teeth.

Energetic articulation of /ð/ may also be interden­tal. It is usually post-dental with the tongue position a little behind the front teeth. There are several mistakes the Russian students make in the articulation оf /θ, ð/: they substitute /s, f/ for /θ/ and /z, v/ for /ð/ and similarly the Russian /с, ф/ for /θ/ and /в, д/ for /ð/.

1. To avoid the /f/ for /θ/ articulation care should be taken to observe
the position of the lower lip, which should be lowered from the edge of
the upper teeth so that the lower teeth can be seen.

2. To avoid the /s/ for /θ/ articulation the tip of the tongue should be
slightly projected between the teeth.

3.To avoid the /z/ for /ð/ articulation observe the second recommendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the voiced consonant /ð/.

4.To avoid the /v/ for /ð/ articulation observe the first recommendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the voiced consonant /ð/.

The substitution of /s, f, z, v, t, 1, d/ for /θ, ð/ leads to phonological mistakes because they are different phonemes. Given below are contrast exercises, which may be helpful for distinguishing between /s, z, t, d/ and /θ, ð/.

/θ/ vs. /s/ /θ/ vs. /t/

thick – sick thick – tick

mouth – mouse thought – taught

thumb – sum three – tree

worth – worse heath – heat

/ð/ vs. /z/ /ð/ vs. /z/

seethe – sees then – den

lathe – laze though – dough

clothe – close there – dare

breathe – breeze other – udder

/h/

I. voiceless fortis;

II. glottal;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral, with a flat

narrowing;

IV.oral.

The /h/ phoneme is pronounced when astrong stream of air is passing through the open glottis.

The articulators are in the position for the following vowel sound. A strong stream of air produces friction both at the glottis and throughout the vocal tract.

The lip and tongue position is that of the following vowel. In phonetic terms, /h/ can be considered a type of voice­less vowel. There are as many allophones of /h/ as there are vowels in English, which follow it.

Russian students often use the backlingual Russian /x/ instead of the glottal /h/. To avoid this mistake it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:

хил — hill хала — hull худо — hood

холл — hall хитр — heet

Graphic Equivalents of the /h/ Phoneme

/h/ is pronounced when spelt:

h how /hau/ — как, hill /hil/ — холм, hate /heıt/ — ненависть

wh who /hu:/ — кто, whom /hu:m/ — кому

/h/ is not pronounced:

(1) in initial position:

hour /'auə/—час, honest /'υnıst/—честный, honour /'υnə/—честь

(2) in medial position:

exhaust /ıg'zo:st/ — выпуск, выхлоп, exhibit /ıg'zıbıt/ — экспонат

(3) in the word shepherd /'ςepəd/ — пастух

/ς, З/

I. /ς/ voiceless fortis, /3/ voiced lenis;

II. lingual, forelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, with a strong outer lip-rounding and protrusion which
contributes to the graver character of the hiss as
opposed to the sharper friction of /s, z/;

III. constrictive, noise, bicentral, with a front sec­ondary focus, with a flat narrowing;

IV. oral.

In (he articulation of the /ς, 3/ phonemes the tip and the blade are raised to the teeth ridge, forming a narrowing with the back of the alveolarridge — primary focus. The front of the tongue is raised in the directionof the hard palate, forming the front secondary focus. The sounds /ς, 3/ are soft or slightly palatalized. The Russian /ш':, ж':/ are softer. They are spelt щ, жж as in: щель, дрожжи.

TheRussian /ш, ж/ are hard sounds. They are produced with a back secondaryfocus and have the /ы/ colouring: шар, жар. Toavoid the pronunciation of the Russian /ш':, ж':/ for the English /ς, 3/ it is useful to do a contrast exercise of the following type:

шип — ςi:p шит — ςi:t ложе — 'р1е3ə

шин — ςi:n кожа — 'mе3ə тоже — 'æ3ə

Graphic Equivalents of the /ς, 3/ Phonemes

/ς/ is pronounced when spelt:

sh she /ςi:/ — она

s sugar /'ςugə/ — сахар

ss assure /ə'ςuə/ — уверять

si Asia /'eıςə/ — Азия

sion after consonants:

pension /'penςn/ — пенсия

ssi session /'seςn/ — сессия, mission /'miςn/ — миссия

ti ration /'ræςn/ — паек, notion /'nəuςn/ — понятие

se nausea /'no:ςıə, 'no:sıə/ — тошнота

ci suspicion /səs'pıςn/ — подозрение

се ocean /'əuςn/ — океан

sci + a vowel in the middle of a word after the accented syllable:

conscience /'kυnςəns/ — совесть

sch schedule /'ςedju:l/ (/'skedju:l/ Am.) — опись; расписание

ch in French borrowings:

machine /ma'ςi:n/ — машина, chivalry /'ςıvalrı/ — рыцарство,

x =/kς/ in accented syllables:

luxury /'l Λ kςərı/ — роскошь, anxious /'ænkςəs/ — беспокойный

but in unaccented syllables — /gz/:

luxurious /l Λ g'zjuərıəs/ — роскошный, anxiety /æŋ(g)'zaıətı/ — тревога, беспокойство

/3/ is pronounced when spelt:

g regime /reı'3i:m/ — режим, rouge /ru:3/ — румяна

su pleasure /'р1е3ə/ — удовольствие

si decision /dı'sı3ən/ — решение

zi glazier /'gleı3ə/ (more often /'gleı3ıə/) — стекольщик

zu azure /'æ3ə/ — голубой, лазурный

ti transition /træn'si3ən/ — переход; переходный период

zh Zhukov /'3икυv/ — Жуков

Constrictive Sonorants (Approximants) /r, j, 1, w/

In the articulation of these consonant phonemes voice prevails over noise, therefore all of them are sonorants. They fall into three groups: median/w, r/, lateral /1/, and palatal /j/.

/r/

I. sonorant;

II. lingual, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar; r

III. constrictive, median, unicentral;

IV. oral.

Thetip of the tongue is curled behind the back slope of the teeth ridge. This position of the tip of the tongue is called post-alveolar, or cacuminal. If it is curled still further — retroflexed position. The air passes out of the mouth cavity through the median line: along the lowered front and the bunched-up back of the tongue, then through the narrowing formed by the tip and the back slopeof the teeth ridge. This passage is rather wide, so voice prevails over noise and the sound produced is a sonorant. The main body of the tongue has lateral bunching: the sides of the tongue are in close contact with the back teeth and the palate. (In the /r/ production the tip and the blade of the tongue are not so tense as in the articulation of the Russian /ж/ apical.)

The similar Russian sound /p/ (apical sonorant) is characterized by a differentmanner of the production of noise: the tip of the tongue vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly forming momentary obstructions against the teeth ridge. The Russian sound /p/ is rolled, or trilled.

Topronounce /r/ in the proper way care should be taken to hold the tip of the tongue placed in post-alveolar position while breathing the air out of the mouth cavity.

Combinations /r+aı/ are most simple, they should be practised and learnt first: right /raıt/, bright /braıt/, try /traı/, dry /draı/, grind /graınd/; only after that other combinations are to be practised.

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