Should and Ought

There’s hardly any difference between these verbs. Very often they are interchangeable. There’s, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to -nfinitive. When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite (Non-perfect) Infinitive is used; when reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out.

Should was originally the past tense of shall, but in course of its development it has acquired new shades of meaning.

	Should	Ought
	1. Obligation, a moral obligation or duty
Imperative	E.g. You should never break your word.	E.g. You ought to take care of him.
		In this meaning OUGHT is more common.
	2. Advice (“ нужно, следовало бы, следует ”)
	E.g. You shouldtake a taxi not to be late.	E.g. You ought to come in time.
	In this meaning should is more common.
	3. Criticism of a past action (“ не следовало, не надо было; следовало, надо было ”)
	E.g. You should have bought the book. You shouldn’t have eaten another piece of cake!	E.g. You ought to have known about it. Youought not to have come so late.
Suppositional (Should and ought are not used to refer to the past)	1. Near certainty (“ должно быть, по-видимому ”)
E.g. Flowers shouldgrow well here.	E.g. Flowers ought to grow well here.
	2. Set expression E.g. Why should I do it? Why should he have taken the book? (“Чего ради? С какой стати?”)

Exercise 245. Read and comment on the meaning of the modal verb should. Translate the sentences into Russian.

A. 1. The children should spend more time in the open air. 2. You should work harder if you want to get through that exam. 3. The British Government shouldn’t attempt to cope with the crisis at the expense of the workers. 4. We shouldn’t be going to that club now: we should be studying for our exam instead. 5. Whom should I invite to my birthday party? 6. Should I see them off?

B. 1. You should have seen your dentist about that toothache weeks ago. 2. We should have asked Mary to dinner yesterday. 3. You shouldn’t have worn this dress last night. 4. You shouldn’t have refused her invitation to last night’s party. 5. Should we have accepted their proposal? 6. What should we have suggested?

Exercise 246. Read and comment on the meaning of the modal verb ought. Translate the sentences into Russian.

A. 1. You ought to be more careful. 2. You ought to be serious. 3. You ought to go there at once. 4. We ought to work systematically. 5. You ought to respect old people. 6. You ought to be working now and not talking to your friends. 7. You ought to be starting early in the morning. 8. The work ought to be done in time. 9. She ought not to stay out late. 10. They ought not to be talking so loudly here.

B. 1. She ought to have read the whole story weeks ago. 2. They ought to have done it at once yesterday. 3. They ought to have been working all this time instead of having a break. 4. This translation ought to have been done long ago. 5. They ought to have told us about it earlier. 6. You ought not to have been sitting here all this time. 7. I ought to have talked to her after classes, oughtn’t I?

Exercise 247. State the function of the modal verb should.

Whole duty of children

Robert Louis Stevenson

A child should always say what’s true

And speak when he is spoken to,

And behave mannerly at table;

At least as far as he is able.

The Curtain Poet

Edwin Brock

A home should have a wife, a cat

and blinds upon the windows that

when pulled aside are suddenly drawn back

again. A wife should have a cat to kick,

a home to love and, if I have not made

my meaning plain, a curtain to be drawn

aside and suddenly pulled back again.

A man should have a wife to love,

a home to kick and cats upon the curtains which

he may from time to time refrain

from seizing to and back again.

But if a home should have a man

who waits upon a window-sill

endeavoring to find a plan

for all that moves outside the pane

be sure the home will have a wife

perhaps the wife will have a cat

but if by now my meaning is not plain

the wife in all sincerity should

turn her back upon the scream

and, singing, seize the cloth across again.

Exercise 248. Read the jokes. State the function of the modal verbs should, ought to.

Mother (at dinner): Peggy, darling, you should not scratch your nose with your spoon.

Peggy: Oh, mother – ought I to have used a fork?

Mrs. Alien: Why should I be wearing this old squirrel fur coat all my life?

Mr. Alien: Why not, dear? Squirrels do.

Exercise 249. Make up sentences using the following expressions to give advice or make a demand.

1. take a taxi

2. have all the documents printed at once

3. make a presentation

4. give up smoking

5. get down to business

6. cross the river

7. not/forget to water the flowers

8. forget one’s manners

9. charge the battery

10. not/talk back

11. not/drive fast

12. not be cruel to animals

Exercise 250. Give advice as shown in the model.

Model. The voltage is decreasing. (check the fuse) – You should have checked the fuse.

1. I have been having splitting headaches lately (consult a doctor). 2. I’m afraid I’ll miss the plane (take a taxi). 3. I have been putting on weight lately (take up swimming). 4. I’ve lost my handbag (phone the Lost Property Office). 5. I need a good rest (go to the South). 6. I want to win the competition (get into training at once). 7. I want to get a good knowledge of Great Britain (travel about the country). 8. I don’t understand Beethoven's music (read more about him and his life). 9. I catch colds very easily (wear warm things). 10. There’s something wrong with the tap (call a plumber).

Exercise 251. Answer the following question.

1. What should one do if he/she has a sore throat?

2. What should one do if he/she has a splinter?

3. What should one do to improve one’s English?

4. What should one do to entertain one’s guests properly?

5. What should one do if his/her walkman broke?

6. What should one do if he/she wants to reduce his/her weight?

7. What should one do if he/she wants to learn to drive?

8. What should one do if he/she wants to upgrade his/her computer?

9. What should one do if he/she wants to find a birthday present for his/her friend?

10. What should one do if he/she wants to show affection?

11. What should one do to get a good crop?

12. What should one do to make a tasty vegetable salad?

Exercise 252. Agree to the statements according to the model.

Model: You shouldn’t have trusted him. – Right you are. I shouldn’t have trusted him, he is such a double-faced man.

1. She shouldn’t have married John. 2. We shouldn’t have invited Smith. 3. He shouldn’t have taken this job. 4. You shouldn’t have bought a digital camera. 5. You shouldn’t have given him so much power. 6. You shouldn’t have asked personal questions. 7. He shouldn’t have spoken about it in public. 8. We shouldn’t have parked your car here. 9. You shouldn’t have spent your honeymoon in town. 10. You should not have given them all this information.

Exercise 253. Read and translate the proverbs and illustrate them with a situation.

1. Beggars should not be choosers. 2. He should have a long spoon who sups with the devil. 3. One should not wash one’s dirty linen in public. 4. When duty calls, no man should disobey.

Exercise 254. Read the following situations and answer the questions using the modal verb ought. Think of a similar situation.

1. Many a night Andrew turned from side to side with growing pain. Paying no attention to his state he always went to work in the morning but once he was taken to hospital from the factory. What ought he to have done?

2. John took Mary to the theatre to see “Swan Lake”. Their seats were in the gallery, and poor Mary didn’t enjoy the ballet at all; being very shortsighted she couldn’t make out anything on the stage. What ought John to have done?

3. We decided to go on a picnic. It took us much time to get everything arranged. But we forgot to listen to the weather forecast; and when we were about to start it began to rain heavily. What ought we to have done?

4. During the term Alex didn’t work hard. He came to his lectures late, if he came at all. His professors were very angry with him but Alex didn’t take it seriously. When the examinations began he was a complete failure. What ought he to have done in order to do well at the University?

Exercise 255. Read the text and say what the choice of must, have to, should and ought depends upon.

Must you use “must”?

“I must have more English lessons”, is a cry often heard among students of the language. “I must study harder because I must take my examination next June.” Must, in short, becomes a very overworked word. They would understand a native speaker who said, “I ought to have more lessons because I have to take my examination next June”, but they find it difficult to judge for themselves the distinctions between must, should, have to and ought.

First, consider MUST. It carries an idea of immediacy and urgency which is part of its appeal to the often frustrated learner. Basically it has two meanings. The first is that of necessity. “You must hurry up if you don’t want to be late for the concert.” “She must make up her mind quickly”. The second meaning is of there being no alternative. “He must be here. I saw him come in only a minute ago.” “I can’t find my diary. I must have left it on my desk in the office.” Note also that must may be employed to press an invitation. “You must come to have dinner with us soon.” “Tell Jane she must come with us when we visit Oxford.”

Must has one form only, but a future tense is made by coupling it with a future word or phrase. “I must buy a new evening dress next week. The Langs have invited us to their party.” Otherwise the missing tenses are supplied by HAVE TO. “When we lived on a farm we had to get up at five in the morning.” “He’ll have to work harder if he wants to pass his examinations.”

In the present tense there is a clear distinction between the use of MUST and HAVE TO. “I must see the Prime Minister immediately – it’s a matter of urgency”, suggests a necessity that has suddenly arisen. “I have to check in at the airport by 14.00 hours”, suggests a necessity that you have been aware of for some time.

Like must, OUGHT also has one form and its missing tenses are supplied by have to. But its meaning is clearly different – that of obligation. “You ought to write to your mother more often”, means that you have a duty to write to your mother more often. It can be used with a past infinitive to form a past tense: “I ought to have realised what was happening”; in indirect speech: “He said that you ought to speak to her more politely”; and with a future word to express the future: “If they want to spend their summer holiday in Russia, they ought to book soon”.

SHOULD is very close to ought but not so strong. It suggests not so much a duty, but a wiser course of action. “You really should wear a hat if you are going out in the sun.” “You should see his garden – it is a perfect picture.” Frequently it is followed by the old subjunctive: “I should get plenty of fresh air, if I were you."

In the second person, the choice between MUST, HAVE TO, OUGHT and SHOULD will depend to some extent on the relationship between the speaker and the person he is speaking to. To tell someone they MUST do something is to command them to do it, and HAVE TO similarly puts the speaker in a superior position. The use of OUGHT suggests strong advice. SHOULD has an altogether milder suggestion.

Exercise 256. Choose the appropriate modal verbs form the box.

can could may might must

have to be to need should ought to

1. You … take your umbrella with you, mark my words, it is going to rain.

2. If you want to explore the city, you … take a guided bus tour.

3. - … I borrow your lighter? - Sure, no problem. Actually, you … keep it, I’ve given up smoking.

4. Driving in such a condition … be dangerous. You … use my car. You … think twice before you do it.

5. Poor dear, you … see the doctor about stomach!

6. … you wait here, please?

7. It … have rained heavily last night – look at the slab paths, they are muddy.

8. You … be awfully tired after the game. You … have some rest.

9. I … speak German fluently when I was a child and we lived in Germany. Then we moved back to the USA, and I forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I … only say a few things in the language.

10. Thank you. You … not accompany me, I know the way.

11. I think you … have been more polite with Tiffany. Such behaviour is highly improper.

12. - Where is my hat? – Oh, it … be in the closet or it … be on the pier-glass table. Or you … have left it in the office, dear.

13. You … take care of this problem yourself, Ms. Sullivan, because if you don’t, you’ll be fired.

14. … we pull over at the next rest stop or a gas station? I really … use the bathroom and I’m not sure if I … hold it until we get to Charlotte.

15. … I suggest something? I am positive that you … spend this weekend with us.

16. You … have been lying on the bed the whole day! Look, you haven’t even cleaned the room and washed up!

17. You … not leave your child unattended. Don’t leave small objects lying around, he,,, swallow them.

18. I … help her, boss. For no particular reason. I just feel that I … help her.

19. - Why … be so cruel with me? All I did was loving you all these years. - Why … I listen to such nonsense?

20. You … have missed him, he is usually off duty at 6.

21. The body was found in the reception-room 5 minutes ago. Nobody has left the office yet, so the killer … be someone in this room. It … be anyone of the employees!

22. He … to arrive at 6, he has promised us.

Exercise 257. Choose the appropriate modal verb. Pay attention to Time Aspect.

1. The vacuum cleaner doesn’t work. It … during production.

a) should have been damaged b) must have been damaged c) can be damaged

2. The parcel … this afternoon. I don’t understand what has happened.

a) should have been delivered b) should be delivered c) should be delivering

3. If he isn’t here yet, he … for us at the office, let’s give him a call.

a) must still be waiting b) must still wait c) must still have waited

4. I’m not really sure where he is. He … on the phone in the living room, or maybe he’s in the bedroom.

a) might talk b) might have talked c) might be talking

5. Ted … the magazine to Bill. What a shame, I was going to read it.

a) must return b) must have returned c) must not have returned

6. You … the tickets for this play in advance. They sell out quickly.

a) have to book b) have to be booked c) has to book

7. You can’t mean that! You …!

a) have got to be joking b) must joke c) have to have joked

8. Anne called and apologized for not coming. She … at the University to meet her Supervisor.

a) should have stayed b) should have been staying c) had to stay

9. You … the air pressure in your tires. You don’t want to get a flat tire on your trip.

a) ought to checked b) ought to be checking c) ought to check

10. He … in the Central Park every Sunday morning. By the way, he still keeps fit.

a) would be jogging b) must be jogging c) used to be jogging

11. When you were in Egypt, you … scuba diving classes. The Red sea is so beautiful.

a) ought to be taking b) should have taken c) can take

12. Somebody called and didn’t leave a message on the answering machine. It … Richard.

a) might have been b) should have been c) had to be

13. The picture … through this window, don’t you see how convenient it was for the robbers.

a) had to be stolen b) have to be stolen c) has to be stolen

14. We agreed to meet Clair at the entrance to the theater. She … for us now.

a) ought to wait b) ought to be waiting c) ought to have waited

15. She …. That’s why her eyes were so red and swollen.

a) can be crying b) may be crying c) must have been crying

16. The TV’s still on! Of course! Harry! Who else …?

a) could it have been b) should it have been c) can it be

17. The accident … immediately, that’s why our company regrets to say that we won’t be able to cover the damage.

a) must have been b) must report c) must be reported

18. That painting … by Picasso. It could be a forgery.

a) might not have been painted b) might not paint c) might be painting

19. Mike, you … your brother’s birthday! It was yesterday and you didn’t even call him.

a) could have remembered b) can remember c) might have remembered

Exercise 258. Translate into English using modal verbs you have studied.

А

1. Вам следует внимание больше на грамматику. 2. Правительство должно удовлетворить все требования шахтеров. 3. Не следует позволять детям делать все, что они хотят. 4. Куда бы нам поехать этим летом? 5. Вам следует воздержаться от приема острой пищи. 6. С какой стати я должна ехать в эту экспедицию? У меня и так дел хватает. 7. У меня очень болит голова и острая боль в сердце. К какому врачу мне следует обратиться? 8. Вам следует больше почитать о географии Англии. 9. Почему мы должны подписывать этот контракт? Он нас совсем не устраивает. 10. Вам не следует ставить эту пьесу. Это слишком трудно для вас.

В

1. Вам надо было послушать игру этого музыканта, вы получили бы огромное удовольствие. 2. Вам надо было поговорить с директором вчера. Сегодня уже поздно. 3. Правительство не должно было игнорировать профсоюзы. Тогда бы оно избежало забастовки и кризиса. 4. – Не стоило вам начинать эту ссору. – Вы правы. Мне надо быть умнее. 5. – Куда же мне надо было положить йогурты? – Тебе надо было положить их в холодильник, тогда бы они не испортились. 6. Учительнице не следовало давать детям такое большое задание. Нет ничего удивительного, что они так слабо подготовлены к уроку. 7. Вам не надо было позволять ребенку смотреть телевизор до полуночи. 8. Вам надо было предупредить нас заранее о приезде. 9. Зря мы выбрали это место для отдыха. Надо было поехать к морю. 10. Не надо было рассказывать ему о болезни матери. Он очень расстроился.

С

1. Мне надо бы сейчас переводить статью, а не смотреть телевизор. 2. Вам давно следовало бы починить музыкальный центр. 3. Ему надо больше тренироваться, иначе он не попадет в финал 4. Как ты думаешь, это хороший концерт? – Откуда мне знать! 5. О какой стати ему бросать музыку? Он способный мальчик и может добиться больших успехов. 6. Напрасно вы тогда не купили этот словарь, теперь он стоит так дорого. 7. Вам не следовало увольнять такого способного работника. – Вы правы, я не подумал. 8. Если вас интересует русская живопись, вам нужно посетить Третьяковскую галерею. 9. Вам нужно питаться регулярно, иначе вы не поправитесь. 10. Вам надо было сразу обратиться к врачу, тогда бы вы смогли избежать осложнений.

D

1. Детям следует помогать родителям по дому. 2. Вам следует чаще писать друзьям. 3. Детям следует здороваться со взрослыми. 4. Вы совсем промокли. Вам следовало взять зонтик. 5. Ему не следовало вести себя так фамильярно со студентами. 6. Мы должны уважать пожилых людей. 7. В ее возрасте ей надо быть более серьезной. 8. Детей следует учить как переходить улицу. 9. Он обязан был присутствовать на собрании. 10. Чтобы избежать осложнений, ему следует остаться дома.11. Вам следует помочь ей. Она ведь очень устала. 12. Он не обязан знать об этом больше, чем он знает. 13. Они обязаны заботиться о детях. 14. Учащиеся обязаны слушать учителя внимательно на уроках.

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