Social learning theory

Richard Walters and Albert Bandura put forward one more theory concerning aggression. It is the so called "Social Learning theory." They concentrate d on how agg ressive be haviours are learned and under what conditions aggression is exh ibited and inhibited. The main idea of their theory is that no one single set of variables, such as territoriality, thanatos, or frustration, can adequately explain all aggressive behaviour. They also have supported t he idea tha t it is more important to study an individual's learning history that it is to speculate on the nature of instinctive drives. The basic co ntribution of social learning th eory to the study of aggression has been its focus on noninstinctual environmental factors. They showed that the individuals who have been exposed to aggressive behaviour in the past will be more likely to react aggressively in a frustrating situation. Another set of reasons why some people react aggressively while others dont is their level of arousal.

Arousal is a physiological term which is used to describe what happens to the body when we are in an exited state or when we are under stress.

9. Answer the following questions:

1. Who were the authors of frustration aggression theory?
2. What is the main idea of frustration aggression theory?
3. What people act more aggressively?
4. When was the theory modified by Leonard Bercovitz?
5. What did he prove?
6. What data were obtained from the research on the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

10. Say if the following statements are true orfalse:

1. Frustration aggression theory has been very popular among many psychologists.
2. Frustration aggression theory was proposed by A. Bandura.
3. Aggressive behaviour is the result of frustrating circumstances.
4. Dollard and Miller conducted many experiments demonstrating aggression as the result of frustration.
5. People having a comfortable lifestyle are usually nonaggressive.
6. Frustration-aggression hypothesis shows that aggression is not entirely instinctual.
7. R Walters and A. Bandura put forward the so called "Social Learning theory" of aggression.
8. The only reason for aggressive behaviour is arousal.
9. There are no people capable of keeping aggression under relatively tight control.

11. Finish the following sentences in accordance with the text:

1. Scientists put forward some theories of aggression. They are...
2. In the late 1930» J. Dollard and N. Miller...
3. According to frustration aggression theory...
4. Frustration aggression theory was modified...
5. "Social Learning theory" was put forward...
6. The main idea of this theory...
7. The basic contribution of social learning theory to the study of aggression...
8. People who have been exposed to aggressive behaviour in the past...
9. Arousal is...

12. Work in pairs. Find outfrom your partners:

• Which theories of aggression they know.
• Which theory they support and why.

13. Choose any definition ojaggression andgive your arguments for andagainstit

Lesson 3. PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION

Text I. Political use of aggression

1. Read the text and express your attitude to the problem described in it

Ideas of aggression are perhaps the most politically sensitive of all. If we see aggression as resulting from an instinctive drive in human beings then it follows logically that we need to keep that drive under control. People will need to have external forces preventing them from showing that aggression and to have their aggression "channelled" into safe outlets, like competition at work. If, on the other hand, we see aggression as arising from frustrating circumstances, then the way to prevent civil unrest or other kinds of aggression isnt by tighter control which only increases the amount of frustration, but is in improving social conditions and opportunities for people, so that the frustrating circumstances don't happen in the first place.

if a country is at war, it is necessary to build up and maintain sustainable level of aggression in its people. In many instances a certain sense of anger will already be present, while in other cases, such as where the country itself is under no direct hostile threat, aggression has to be more carefully manipulated.

British involvement in the Second World War and the Gulf War illustrates these cases. Both made careful use of propaganda, although there are important differences to note. In the Second World War, the whole economy and population were geared to the war effort, so it was important not only that the non-military population agreed with the objectives, but that its aggression was sustained at a high enough level to accept and support the great social and economic changes that were necessary.

By contrast, Iraq posed no direct threat to Britain (other than to Britain's oil supplies). The Iraq Iider, Sadam Hussein, pictured less that year earlier as a trading partner and ally, was now portrayed as a mad butcher and likened to Hitler. Only negative aspects of Iraq culture and positive aspects of Kuwaiti culture were shown. Soldiers and civilians alike were treated to stories of Iraqis taking Kuwait babies out of their incubators before transporting incubators home. That this story subsequently turned out to be false is of little relevance to its effect at the time.

2. Give your own examples of manipulation of human aggression.

Lesson 4. COMPREHENSION CHECK.

Choose the best alternative.

1) According to Freud aggression i

1. the result of frustrating circumstances.
2. instinctive drive in human beings.
3. a result of drug abuse.

2) Frustration aggression theory was proposed by

1. John Dollard and his colleagues.
2. S. Freud and his students.
3. Bandura and R Walters.

3) Leonard Bercovitz found that the form that aggression takes depends

1. upon the food an individual eats.
2. upon previous experience.
3. upon an individual's nationality.

4) The term "ritualized fighting gestures" was produced by

1. Neal Miller.
2. Leonard Bercovitz.
3. Lorenz.

5) Animals place themselves in a highly vulnerable position

1. to stop aggression.
2. to begin attack.
3. to play.

6 ) The only animals that are not equipped with natural weaponry are

1. cats.
2. rats.
3. bats.

7) Ideas of aggression are the most sensitive of all

1. psychologically.
2. Politically
3. nulitarily.

9) Richard Walters and Albert Banaura put forward

1. Frustration aggression theory.
2. Theory of aggression as an instinct.
3. Social learning theory.

10) S. Freud put forward his theory of aggression after

1. the First World War.
2. the Second World War.
3. the Gulf war.

2. Match the words with the definitions given below.

Appeasement gestures. Eros. Libido. Thanatos. Ritualized fighting gestures. Catharsis.

a) The life-force which is involved in all pleasurable sensations,

в) The gestures in which an animal's natural weapons, like horns and teeth, are displayed to its opponent.

c) The gestures with the help of which an animal would place itself in a highly vulnerable position, which would signal to the aggressor, that the attack should be stopped.

d) The death instinct. It represents the universal drive to return to the earth; suicide is the ultimate expression of Thanatos.

e) The life instinct (according to Freud).

f) The indirect expression of the aggressive instinct. It provides a safe, socially acceptable, tension-reducing means of dealing with thanatos.

3. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

1. Впервые теорию агрессии как инстинкта выдвинул 3. Фрейд после первой мировой войны. 2. Согласно теории Лоренца агрессия - это неиссякаемый источник энергии, производимой человеческим организмом. 3. В соответствии с теорией, выдвинутой Джоном Долардом и Нилом Миллером, агрессивное поведение чаще проявляют люди, находящиеся в сложных жизненных условиях. 4. Альберт Бандура и Ричард Волтерс считали, что степень агрессивности человека зависит от наличия в его прошлом негативного жизненного опыта. 5. Человеческая агрессия очень часто используется политиками для достижения цели в политических играх.

Unit VI. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

Lesson 1. FAMILIARITY AND SIMILARITY OF ATTITUDES

1. Study the following word and word combinations:

attraction [B'trWkGn] - 1) притяжение; тяготение; 2) привлекательность, прелесть, очарование

familiarity [fBmili'Writi] - близкое знакомство

attitude [ ' Wtitju: d] - психол, социальная установка

reciprocal - взаимный, обоюдный

imaginary [i'mW7inri] - воображаемый, придуманный

relative ['ге1Btiv] - относительный

trust [trHst] - верить

predict [pri ' dikt] - предсказать

belief [bi ' li:f ] -1) вера, доверие; 2) убеждение, мнение

to believe [bi ' li:v] - верить

reward [гi ' wC:d] п. - награда; v. – награждать

2. Read the following word combinations for several times and remember them:

reciprocal liking—взаимная симпатия

interpersonal attraction - межличностное притяжение, привлекательность

similarity of attitudes - психол. схожесть социальных установок

research participants - участники исследования, эксперимента

physical attraction - физическое влечение, привлекательность

relative strangers - относительно незнакомые люди

rent-free accommodation - бесплатное жилье

those who live in close proximity - те, кто живет в непосредственной близости develop good friendship - стать друзьями

3. Give the three forms of the following verbs: be, do, perform, argue, see, prepare, like, predict, come, suggest, can, trust, know, wait, study, have, repeat, hold, provide, place, find, make.

4. Read the following dates andfigures: 1952,1959,1968,1951,1969,1961,25%, 79%, 104%, 58%.

5. Write the derivatives of thefollowing words: to inform, to tend, to develop, familiar, pleasure, to predict, important

6. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations: to perform studies, to attribute qualities, unpleasant qualities, to support the idea, to form negative attitude, to collect information, to prefer, to believe, to trust an important basis, to be familiar, interpersonal attraction, to predict something, stranger, to reward somebody, set of students, shared their beliefs, to feel anxious, to collect information, to feel at ease.

7. Write the words opposite in meaning to the following ones using the given negativeprefficses*: familiar, pleasant, liking, complete, agree, agreement, important, attractive, beliefs.

8. Read the following text and get ready to discuss it

There are several different factors involved in the ways that we come to like or dislike others. Some of the main ones are: familiarity, similarity of attitudes, physical attraction, and reciprocal liking.

Zajonc (1968) performed several studies, in which he found that people readily formed negative attitudes towards a totally imaginary people, the "Wallonians." Even though the research participants had no direct experience of "Wallonians," they were prepared to attribute unpleasant qualities to them simply on the basis that they were unfamiliar to them. Zajonc argued that familiarity forms an important basis for interpersonal attraction: we tend to like people that we see often, perhaps because it means that we see a more complete picture of that individual and their behaviour. Bramel (1969) suggested that we tend to like those people whom we can trust and whose behaviour we can predict, and it is likely that we will be less able to predict the behaviour of relative strangers than of people who are familiar to us.

It is known that we tend to like people who hold similar attitudes and beliefs to ourselves, perhaps, we find it rewarding to find other people who agree with us. There have been several studies that have supported this idea, showing that people generally prefer to make their friends from others like themselves.

In 1961 a study was performed of university students, in which they were provided with rent-free accommodation in return for helping with the research. The scientists collected information about their likes, dislikes, and attitudes, and then placed with others who shared their beliefs, and some with those who had opposite views. Of the first group, 58% developed good friendship with their partners, while only 25% of the second group did.

The experiment was repeated the following year, with another set of students, but this time it was found that the most important factor which affected whether a friendship had developed by the end of the college year wasn't their similarity of attitudes but how close they lived to each other. This research supports both the idea that we like those whom we consider to be similar to ourselves and the idea that we tend to like those who live in close proximity.

In 1951 another experiment showed that people who seem to agree with everyone else in a group are often seen to be more likable than those who go against the group's beliefs.

In 1959 an explanation was offered as to why we are attracted to those who are like us. It was suggested that we feel more at ease and less anxious in such company. Research participants who were asked with whom they would like to wait whilst they awaited an unpleasant experience of some kind, preferred to wait with others in a similar position to themselves, who were also awaiting the unpleasant event.

9. Answer the following questions:

1. What factors are involved in the ways that we come to like or dislike others?

2. Who performed several studies connected with negative attitudes towards people?

3. What are the "Wallonians"?

4. What were the results of the research?

5. What forms an important basis for interpersonal attraction?

6. What people do we tend to like?

7. Who suggested that we tend to like those people whom we can trust?

8. Which people do we tend to like?

9. When was the first experiment in this field performed?

10. Who was the study performed of?

11. What were the students provided with?

12. What did the scientists study?

13. Whom were the students placed with?

14. What were the results of the experiment?

15. When was the second experiment made?

16. What ideas did it support?

10. Say whether the following sentences are true orfalse to the text:

1. We tend to like those people whom we can trust.

2. Familiarity forms an important basis for interpersonal attraction.

3. Only familiarity and similarity of attitudes are involved in the ways that we come to like or dislike others.

4. We axe prepared to attribute unpleasant qualities to unfamiliar people.

5. Freud suggested that we tend to like those people whom we can trust.

6. We can trust more of relative strangers than of people who are familiar to us.

7. We like people who hold similar attitudes and beliefs to ourselves.

8. There have been no studies that have supported that idea.

9. In 1961 a study was performed of university students.

10. The students were provided with very expensive flats.

11. The scientists collected information about their likes, dislikes, and attitudes.

12. Students were placed with others who shared their beliefs, and some with those who had opposite views.

13. The experiment was repeated in ten years.

11. Finish the following sentences:

1. Zajonc performed several studies...

2. People readily form negative attitudes...

3. The research participants were prepared to...

4. Familiarity forms...

5. We tend to like people...

6. Bramel suggested that...

7. We can predict the behaviour of people...

8. We tend to like people who...

9. In 1961 a study was performed...

10. The students were provided with...

11. The promised to...

12. The scientists collected information...

13. The students were placed with others who...

14. Others were placed with those who...

15. 58% of the students developed good friendship...

16. The experiment was...

17. The second research supports the idea that we like those whom...

18. It also proved that we tend to like those...

12. Work in groups and yourfriends:

- what they know about studies performed by Zajonc;

- what they know about the experiments performed with the help of students in I960;

- what they think about similarity of attitudes and familiarity of people.

13. Prove that familiarity is very important in our life.

14. Express your attitude to the statement that only people who hold similar attitudes and beliefs can live and work successfully.

Lesson 2. PHYSICAL ATTRACTION AND RECIPROCAL LIKING

1. Study the following words:

mutual [ ' mju:5uel] - взаимный

emerge [i ' mM:7] - выясняться, всплывать

endear [in'diB] - заставить полюбить, внушить любовь

naughty ['nC:ti] - непослушный, озорной

at random ['rWndBm] - наугад, наобум

2. Read thefollowing word combinations for several times and remember them:

to commit a crime - совершить преступление

level of attractiveness - уровень привлекательности

to attach something to - прикладывать, прикреплять

endearing qualities - качества, из-за которых нам нравятся другие люди

3. Read the following dates and numbers: 1972,99,1973,400,1685,1834,1978, 2005,87,18,25,17,1846,1954.

4. Find in the text all the irregular verbs and write their three forms.

5. Write the derivatives of thefollowing words: to attract, to consider, to identify, to relate, intelligent, quality, commit.

6. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations: attractiveness, level of attractiveness, good looking children, unattractive children, endearing qualities, highly - valued quality, reciprocal liking, naughty children, to rate, to get a job, to be identical, to commit a crime, mutual understanding, appearance, to be similar, family couples, to match couples at random, to accept something, to think highly of work, a particular child.

7. Read the following text and get ready to discuss it

Although many of us would say that appearance doesn't matter when you are choosing friends and partners, research indicates that we are mistaken.

According to different studies, people tend to choose a partner of similar levels of attractiveness. Murstein (1972) asked a group of people to judge the attractiveness of 99 engaged or courting couples. Another 99 photos of men were placed at random with 99 photos of women. Each photo was rated on their level of attractiveness. The results were clear the couples who were going out together were rated as more similar in levels c»f attractiveness than were the couples matched at random. You may sometimes see illustrations of these findings in your friends' albums, where couples often look very alike.

Although the idea of what is "attractive" is different in different cultures, physical attractiveness seems to be a highly - valued quality in most cultures. In Western society people who are though to be attractive are also considered to have other endearing qualities. In 1972 a group of college students was showed photographs of naughty children. It was found that the students readily accepted that unattractive children h^d committed crimes but were less prepared to accept that good looking children had committed them. Attractive people are more likely to get jobs, and other people are fnore likely to think highly of their work. Clifford and Walster in 1973 asked teachers from 400 schools to read a report relating to a particular child who was unknown to them. All the cards that the teachers received were identical except for the fact that some had a picture of an attractive boy or girl attached to them and others had a picture of an unattractive boy or girl attached. The results were very disturbing, because the teachers judged the attractive children, of either sex, to be potentially brighter and have higher intelligence scores than the unattractive children. This has irpportant implications for how children are assessed in schools.

Reciprocal liking occurs when we like other people because we know that they like us. Yoi» may have experienced this yourself. Two interesting findings have emerged from research in this area. Firstiy, how much we like someone who shows us affection depends very much on how we feel about ourselves. Secondly, the picture of mutual attraction is a little more complex than we probably realise.

8. Answer the following questions:

1. Is appearance important when we choose a friend?
2. Which partners do we tend to choose?
3. Which couples are more similar in levels of attractiveness?
4. Is the idea of "attractive" similar in different societies?
5. What is highly valued in many cultures?
6. Are people ready to admit that unattractive children can be naughty?
7. Do people believe that good-looking children can comet crimes?
8. How do school teachers value attractive children?
9. When does reciprocal liking occur?
10. What are the two main things about reciprocal liking?

9. Say whether the following sentences are true or false to the text

1. Appearance doesn't matter when you are choosing friends and partners.

2. People tend to choose a partner of similar levels of attractiveness.

3. The couples who are going out together are more similar in levels of attractiveness than are the couples matched at random.

4. The idea of what is "attractive" is similar in all cultures.

5. In our society to be attractive means to have other endearing qualities.

6. The students in the experiment readily accepted that unattractive children had committed crimes.

7. people are ready to accept that attractive children can be naughty.

8. Teachers think that attractive children are more intelligent then others.

9. Reciprocal liking occurs when we like other people because we know that they like us.

10. Finish the following sentences:

1. We are mistaken when we say that...

2. People tend to choose a partner of...

3. The couples who are going out together are more...

4. We may often see the illustration of this in...

5. The idea of what is "attractive" is...

6. Physical attractiveness seems to be...

7. In our society attractive people are thought to...

8. People readily accept that unattractive children can...

9. People are not prepared to admit that attractive children...

10. Teachers at schools think that attractive children are...

11. Reciprocal liking occurs when...

12. How much we like someone who shows us affection...

13. The picture of mutual attraction is...

11. Express your attitude to the fact that:

attractive children are thought to be brighter;

it is easier for attractive people to find job;

people tend to find negative features in the appearance of people committed a crime.

12. Imagine that you took part in the experiment with the children's photos performed by Clifford and Walster. Describe the experimentfrom the point of view of the participant

13.Speak about Murstein's experiment and agree or disagree with his conclusion.

Lesson 3. COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. Choose the best alternative.

1) People tend to like those who

a) have similar flats and cars.

b) are of the same height and weight with them.

c) hold similar attitudes and beliefs.

2) Zajonc proved that human beings readily form negative attitudes towards

a) totally imaginary people.

b) to familiar people.

c) to their relatives.

3) It is easier to get good jobs for

a) well-educated people.

b) good-looking and attractive people.

c) unattractive people.

4) In different cultures the idea of attractiveness is

a) similar.

b) negative.

c) different.

5) Several studies of people's readiness toform negative attitudes towards totally imaginary persons was performed by

a) Zajonc.

c)

Clifford and Walster.

6) Clifford and Walster made experiments with

a) university students.

b)factory workers.

c) school teachers.

7) Teachers often think that attractive children

a) are brighter then other children.

b) more often can commit a crime.

c) more often talented in music.

8) People tend to think that unattractive children

a) are very gifted.

b) are very naughty.

c) are brighter then other children.

9) It is proved by the psychologists that family couples

often look very alike.

never look alike.

often quarrel.

10) The study performed of university students in 1961 showed that people living in close proximity

a) often quarrel.

b) often become friends.

c) often ignore each other.

2. Translate the following sentences front Russian into English.

1. Люди, живущие в непосредственной близости друг от друга, часто становятся друзьями.

2. Ученые доказали, что взаимная симпатия очень важна в работе.

3. Многие считают, что непривлекательные люди склонны к совершению преступлений.

4. Странно, но многие учителя любят непослушных детей.

5. Участники последнего эксперимента доказали, что схожесть социальных установок очень важна для тех, кто живет в непосредственной близости друг от друга.

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