United Kingdom

Sweden

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the use of the title 'psychologist' is restricted by law. Initially, only 'clinical psychologist' and 'registered psychologist' were restricted (to people qualified as such). However, in 2004, the use of psychologist is now limited to only those registered psychologists (including clinical psychologists). This is to prevent the misrepresentation of other psychology qualifications in the mental health field. Academic psychologists (social psychologists) are now only able to refer to themselves as 'researchers in psychology'.

In Sweden the titles "psychologist" and "licensed psychologist" are restricted in law. It can only be used after receiving a license from government. The basic requirements are a completed five years specialised course in psychology (equivalent of a Master's degree) and one year of practice under supervision. All other uses are banned, though often challenged. "Psychotherapist" follows similar rules but the basic educational demands are another 1.5 years (spread out over three years) at a specialised course in psychotherapy (that do vary a lot concerning theoretical footing), in addition to an academical level degree within a field concerning the treatment of people (psychologist, social worker, psychiatrist). Others than psychologist usually have to complete their education with basic courses in psychotherapy to meet the demands for the applied psychotherapy classes.

In the U.K. the use of the title "chartered psychologist" is protected by statutory regulation. At present the registration in order to use the title 'psychologist', 'psychotherapist' or 'therapist' is voluntary, in other words it is not required by any Act of Parliament, but the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy (U.K.C.P.) is campaigning with other related organizations for the statutory regulation of the 'talking therapy' professions. Only psychotherapists who meet the training requirements of U.K.C.P. and abide by its ethical guidelines are included on the U.K.C.P.'s register of psychotherapists.

Unit III. MEMORY

Lesson 1. MEMORY

1. Study the following words:

memory ['memBri] - память

exercise ['eksBsaiz] n - упражнение; v-тренировать, упражнять

complain [кBm'plein] —жаловаться

fault [fo:lt] -1) недостаток, дефект, 2) промах, ошибка; to be at ~ ошибаться; 3) вина, in ~ виноватый; whose — is it? кто виноват?

2. Read the following word combinations and remember them:

strong or weak - сильный или слабый

to question some fact — усомниться в каком-либо факте

either consciously or unconsciously - сознательно или бессознательно

one's own fault - чья-то собственная вина

by the same means - тем же самым способом

do not eem to know - по-видимому, не знают

his parents are to blame - нужно винить его родителей

just as much his own fault - в той же мере его собственная вина

is being exercised –тренируется

3. Write the threeforms of the following verbs and memorize them: blame, do, become, use, complain, think, be, know, exercise, improve, say, sit, notice, practise, tell, realize, have, write, can, read, remember, have, play.

4. Write the words opposite in meaning to the following ones using the given negativepreffuses: im-, ir-, un-, U-, in-. *

Possible, regular, consciously, moral, mortal, legal, logical, practicable, pure, ability, valid, visible, responsible, real, lucky.

5. Match the synonyms:

a) to memorize to better

to notice to disbelieve

to doubt to learn

to improve to observe

b) strong intelligent

clever bad

weak happy

lucky strengthless

6. Give the Russian equivalents of thefollowing words and word combinations: memory, to memorise, muscles, memorial, to train, an exercise, to exercise, weak, strong, regularly, systematically, good memory, poor memory, consciously, unconsciously, to blame, fault, to be extremely clever, to be extremely strong, means, practice, to practise, remembering, opportunity, to complain.

7. Read the text and get ready to discuss it

If you do not use your arms or legs for some time, they become weak; when you start using them again, they slowly become strong again. Everybody knows this, and nobody would think of questioning this fact. Yet there are many people who do not seem to know that memory works in the same way. When someone says that he has a good memory, he really means that he keeps his memory in practice by exercising it regularly, either consciously or unconsciously. When someone else says that his memory is poor, he really means that he does not give it enough opportunity to become strong. The position is exactly the same as that of two people, one of whom exercises his arms and legs by playing tennis, while the other sits in a chair or motor car all day.

If a friend complains that his arms are weak, we know that it is his own fault. But if he tells us that he has a poor memory, many of us think his parents are to blame, or that he is just unlucky, and a few of us realize that it is just as much his own fault as if it was his arms and legs that were weak. Not all of us become extremely strong or extremely clever, but all of us can, if we have ordinary bodies and brains, improve our strength and our memory by the same means - practice.

Have you ever noticed that people who cannot read or write usually have better memories than those who can? Why is this? Of course, because those who cannot read or write have to remember dungs: they cannot write them down in a little notebook. They have to remember dates, times, prices, names, songs and stories; so their memory is the whole time being exercised.

So if you want a good memory, learn to practise remembering.

8. Answer the following questions:

1. What should we do to have strong muscles?
2. Which people have better memory those who can read or those who can not?
3. Who is to blame for our bad memory?
4. What should we to do have good memory?
5. What useful means of training one's memory do you know?
6. What sort of information do you remember better: names, numbers, dates, times'.
7. Which types of memory do you know?
8. What can you say about your own memory?

9. Say whether the following statements are true orfalse:

1. If you do not use your arms or legs for some time, they become weak.
2. We should exercise our arms and legs every day.
3. If we do not exercise our memory it becomes good.
4. Our parents are to blame for our bad memory.
5. Our bad memory is our own fault.
6. People who can not read have worse memory than those who can.
7. If you want a good memory, learn to practise remembering.

10. Finish the following sentences:

1. If we do not use our arms or legs for some time...
2. If we do not exercise our memory...
3. When someone says that he has a good memory it means that...
4. When someone says that his memory is poor...
5. People who cannot read or write usually...
6. Those who can not read have to remember...
7. If you want to have a good memory...

11. Imagine that you are a scientist studying memory. Give some advice how to improve our memory.

12. Read and translate the following sentences Into Russian. Pay attention to the structure Be+Infinitive.

1. If you memory is to improve, it must be exercised daily. 2. If you are to prepare for the lessons, you must go to the library. 3. If your muscles are to exercise, you must go to the physical culture lessons. 4. If you memory is to exercise, you must learn by heart poems and foreign words. S. If some information is to remember, you may write it down. 6. If the students are to get a good education they must work hard. 7. Library books are to be returned in 10 days. 8. Exercises are to be done accurately. 9. Every means is to be tried to help people in trouble. 10. This book is to be read for the next lesson.

13. Rewrite the following sentences and put the verbs in Passive Voice. *

1. We must exercise our memory regularly. 2. You must do physical exercises every day. 3. Students must learn new words for every English lesson. 4. We must blame our laziness for our bad memory. 5. We should train our muscles systematically. 6. We have to use different exercises to improve our memory. 7. Students must read many books.

Lesson 2. PROCESSING INFORMATION

1. Read the following words and remember them:

storehouse ['stC:haus] - сокровищница; кладезь; а ~ of information энциклопедия

accumulate [BkjL:mjB'leit] -1) аккумулировать, накапливать; скапливать; складывать

reservoir [rezBv'wa:]-l) резервуар; 2) запас, источник (знаний, энергии и т.п.); хранилище, сокровищница; - of strength - источник силы

persist [pB'sist] - 1) упорствовать, настойчиво, упорно продолжать (in);

he ~ ed in his opinion - он упорно стоял на своем; 2) удерживаться, сохраняться, продолжать существовать; устоять; the tendency still - s - эта тенденция все еще существует

challenge ['tGWlindF] - сложная задача, проблема

encoding [Bn'koudiE] - кодирование, шифрование

storage ['stCridF] - 1) хранение; 2) склад, хранилище; 3) запоминающее устройство, память (вычислительной машины)

retrieval [ritri: vl] -1) возвращение; 2) исправление

keystroke [ki:strBLk] - нажатие клавиши или кнопки

retain [ri'tein] -1) удерживать, поддерживать; 2) сохранять; 3) помнить

assume [B'sju:m] - предполагать, допускать; let us - that... допустим, что

novel ['nBLval] - новый, непривычный, оригинальный

2. Read and guess the meaning ofthefollowing international words: reservoir, moment, person, computer, system, information, model, combine, disk, organize, complex, accumulate.

3. Write the three forms to the following verbs and memorize them: be, remember, dress, cook, eat, store, can, process, get, apply, may, have, make, take, combine, encode, retrieve.

4. Write the pluralform of thefollowing nouns and group them into three columns in accordance with the pronunciation of the ending -s: memory, reservoir, thing, moment, person, system, computer, language, massage, brain, information, disk, guardian, challenge, method, screen, step, way, library, observation, model, work.

5. Write the derivatives of the following words: to code, to store, to retrieve, memory, to collect, to locate, to process.

6. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations: human memory, a printout, information-processing system, model of memory, indication, mind's storehouse, guilt, a fresh challenge, joyful moments, accurately, way of acquiring information, retrieved information, misery, painful recollections, computer's electronic language, a printout, simplify, sensory massages, bear in mind.

7. Read the text and get ready to discuss it

Your memory is your mind's storehouse, the reservoir of your accumulated learning. To Cicero memory was "the treasure and guardian of all things." To a psychologist, memory is an indication that learning has persisted over time.

Imagine your life without memory. There would be no savouring the remembrances of joyful moments, no guilt or misery over painful recollections. Each moment would be a fresh challenge; each person would be a stranger, each task - dressing, cooking, eating and so on - would be a novel challenge, every language would be a foreign language.

Ordinary human memory stores much more information and is more complex than any computer. But both systems can be viewed as processing information in three steps: encoding, storage and retrieval.

First, information should be encoded, or translated into some form that enables the system (human brain or computer) to process it. Keystrokes are encoded into the computer's electronic language, and sensory massages are encoded into the brain's neural language.

Next, information must be stored, or retained, by the system over time. A computer might store information magnetically on a disk; a person stores information in the brain.

Finally, there must be a method by which information can be retrieved, or located and gotten out, when needed. Computers can search their memory stores and present the retrieved information on a screen or in a printout. People remember less exactly, by combining their retrieved information with what they currently assume or believe.

These three steps - encoding, storage and retrieval - apply not only to human memory and computer systems, but also to other information-processing systems. A library, for example, must have some way of acquiring information, retaining it, and making it available to users.

To explain how our memory works the scientists use different models. But it should be borne in mind that the danger in using any model of memory is that we may take it too literary. A model can help us organize and simplify a great many observations. But as we learn more, any model is likely to be altered or replaced by another mat more accurately reflects how the memory works.

8. Answer the following questions:

1. What is our memory? (Give answers from different points of view.)
2. Is it possible to live without memory?
3. Is it easy to live without memory?
4. Can you imagine your life without memory?
5. What do scientists use to explain how memory works?
6. Why do scientists use models?
7. What are the main steps in processing information according to the

model?

1. What is the first step of processing information?
2. What is encoded into the brain's neural language? 10 What is the second step?
3. Where do people store information?
4. How do we call the third step of processing information?
5. How do computers present the retrieved information?
6. How do people remember information?

9. Say whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Our memory is the reservoir of your accumulated learning.
2. To Cicero memory was an indication that learning has persisted over time.
3. It is very easy to live without memory.
4. Without memory each moment would be a fresh challenge.
5. Without memory we would have no painful recollections.
6. Ordinary human memory stores less information than any computer.
7. There are four steps of processing information.
8. The main steps of processing information are: encoding, storage and retrieval.
9. The first step is retrieval of information.
10. Sensory massages are encoded into the brain's neural language at the stage of encoding.
11. Every person stores information magnetically on a disk.
12. These main steps apply to any information-processing system.

10. Finish the following sentences:

1. Our memory is our...
2. Without memory...
3. Ordinary human memory stores.
4. The three main steps of processing information are...
5. Encoding means...
6. During encoding sensory massages are...
7. The second step means that...
8. Finally, information should be...
9. People remember by...
10. These three steps apply to....
11. Scientists use different models of memory to...

11. Prove that:

- our life without memory is impossible;

- there is danger in taking too literary any model of memory;

- ordinary human memory stores much more information than any computer.

12. Work in groups and find outfrom your partners:

- which models of memory they know. Ask them to describe any model.

13. Imagine that:

1. You are a scientist, studying memory. Explain to the students the existing model of memory or present your own one.

2. You are a computer engineer. Compare human memory with a computer.

Lesson 3. FORMS OF REMEMBERING

1. Read the following words and remember them:

recall [ri'kC:l] п.- 1) воспоминание, память; 2) призыв вернуться; v -1) вспоминать, напоминать, воскрешать (в памяти)

recognition [rikBg'niGn] -1) узнавание, опознание; 2) признание

reconstruction [rikBn'strakGn] - восстановление, воссоздание

re-learning [гi'lB:niE] - повторное заучивание

nonsense ['nCnsBns] - вздор, ерунда, чепуха, бессмыслица

clotted (или flat) ~ - совершенная ерунда;

to talk— говорить глупости, нести чушь

external [ik'stB:nl] - наружный, внешний, зд. посторонний

spontaneously [spon'teiniBsli] - спонтанно

arrange [B'reindF] -1) приводить в порядок, располагать; 2) классифицировать

identify [ai'dentifai] -1) узнавать, распознавать; 2) отождествлять

2. Write the derivatives of the following words: memory, construct, recognise, assist, conscious.

3. Write the derivatives of thefollowing words with the help of the preffics re-and guess their meaning: call, construct, learn, arrange.

4. Write the three forms to thefollowing verbs and memorize them: learn, have, bring, get, be, can, think, forget, find, come, know, see, take, remember, do, memorise, recognise, produce.

5. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and word Combinations: psychologist, human memory, systematic research, get somebody do something, distinct, distinct ways of remembering information, external assistance, multiple-choice exams, to come across something, to be able to do something, to be used to something.

6. Read the following dates: 1885,1905,2006,1800,1982, January 24, 1850; 1867, 1870,1873,1879,1894,1950.

7. Read the text and get ready to discuss it

One of the first psychologists to study memory was Ebbinghaus, who produced a book about human memory in 1885. Ebbinghaus was very careful and systematic in his research, getting himself and his assistant to memorise long lists of nonsense syllables, and studying the ways in which they came to remember or forget them. Ebbinghaus found that there were four distinct ways of remembering information: recall, recognition, reconstruction and re-learning.

One of the first was recall: the kind of process that we would generally call remembering. It involves bringing information out of memory without any external assistance, like the way that we remember things for the exams.

A second kind of memory was recognition: sometimes we cant recall things, but we can recognize them when we come across them. We use this kind of memory at our multiple-choice exams, when even though we are not able to bring the correct answer to mind spontaneously, but we are still able to know which is the correct one when we see it.

Another kind of remembering is reconstruction. But it is not the conscious one that we are normally used to. Sometimes Ebbinghaus found that he was unable to recall or recognise a list that he had learned previously. However, if he had to rearrange it in some way, he found that he would have reconstructed the original order of the list.

The fourth kind of remembering that Ebbinghaus identified was also an unconscious one. It was re-learning. Ebbinghaus found that it took him less time to learn again the list he had learned previously and totally forgotten, than a new one that he had never seen before in his life. So when we think that we have forgotten material entirely and have to learn it again, means that we have less trouble re-learning it than memorizing it for the first time.

8. Answer the following questions:

1. Who was the first psychologist to study memory?
2. Who took part in his research?
3. How many ways or remembering things did he find?
4. What kind of process do we call remembering?
5. When do people use recall?
6. What type of remembering things do we check at multiple-choice exams?
7. Are all the types of remembering conscious?
8. What is reconstruction?
9. Does it really take us less time to learn again the list we have learned previously and totally forgotten?

9. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1. One of the first psychologists to study memory was Jean Piaget.
2. Ebbinghaus produced a book about human memory in 1885.
3. Ebbinghaus was not very careful and systematic in his research.
4. Many people took part in Ebbinghaus's research.
5. Ebbinghaus found six distinct ways of remembering information
6. The four distinct ways of remembering information are: recall, recognition, reconstruction and re-learning.
7. Recall is the kind of process that we would generally call remembering.
8. For the exams we use recognition.
9. Recognition is the kind of memory that we use at our multiple-choice exams.
10. There are two unconscious ways of remembering things: reconstruction and re-learning.
11. We have less trouble re-learning something than memorizing it for the first time.

10. Finish the following sentences:

1. One of the first psychologists to study memory...
2. Ebbinghaus found that there were...
3. One of the first was recall...
4. A second kind of memory was...
5. There are two unconscious ways of remembering:...
6. Reconstruction means...
7. Re-learning means...

11. Work in group andfind out what your partners know about:

- conscious ways of remembering things;

- unconscious ways of remembering things.

12. Speak about different ways of remembering.

13. Read additional information about Ebbinghaus.

Hermann Ebbinghaus was bom on January 24,1850, in Bremen, a small place near Bonn, Germany. At the age of 17, he entered the University of Bonn, where he got interested in Philosophy. He studied at the University of Bonn before attending Halle and Berlin Universities between 1867 to 1870. However, his studies were temporarily interrupted in 1870 by the Franco-Prussian War, when he enlisted in the Prussian army. He resumed his studies a year later and he received his doctorate in 1873 from the University of Bonn. Ebbinghaus then returned to Berlin for a few years before moving to France and England for three years, both studying and lecturing.

During his travel, studying and teaching intermittently, he came across a copy of Psychophysics in a second hand book store, which resolved to tackle the "higher mental processes" that Wilhelm Wundt (who had first established the laboratory for the experiments in psychology at Leipzig in 1879) had excluded from experimental treatment. Using himself as his only subject, Ebbinghaus set out in 1879, to demonstrate Wundt's error. The result was his classic work on Memory (1885).

In 1880, he became a private instructor at the University of Berlin. A year later he was appointed Ausserordentlicher Professor at the University of Berlin. Though his tenure lasted eight years, for some reason, Ebbinghaus was not promoted to the Chair of Philosophy, including psychology when it was vacant in 1894. Ebbinghaus accepted a chair at Breslau where he remained until 1905.

14. Find additional information about other scientists who studied memory. Get ready to present your information to the group.

Lesson 4. WHY DO WE FORGET?

1. Study the following words:

amnesia [Bm'ni:siB] - амнезия

tend to -1) иметь тенденцию (к чему-л.); 2) склоняться (к чему-либо)

to lead up to [li:d] - постепенно подготавливать; lead to - приводить к каким-либо результатам

repression [rip'reGn] -1) подавление; 2) сдерживание (чувств, мыслей) interference [intB'fiBrBns] -1) псих, интерференция; 2) вмешательство

to remind something - напоминать что-либо

forgetting [fB'getiE] – забывание

2. Read the following word combinations and remember them:

anterograde amnesia -энтероградная амнезия (направленная вперед) retrograde amnesia - ретроградная амнезия (направленная назад) to be motivated to do something - иметь мотивацию (сделать что-л.) motivated forgetting - мотивированное забывание retroactive interference - ретроактивная амнезия proactive interference - проактивная амнезия

3. Write the three forms to the following verbs and memorize them: lead, mean, can, lose, forget, show, be, do, may, meet, bring, take, have, learn, put.

4. Write the derivatives of the following words: accident, drama, to interfere, active.

5. Give the Russian equivalents to thefollowing words andwordcombinations: to put forward, brain damage, loss of memory, to be able to do something, retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia, dramatic reason, disease, to recall information, to lead up, explanation, to motivate, previously, account for.

6. Write the pluralform of thefollowing nouns and group them into three columns in accordance with the pronunciation of the ending -s: reason, theory, damage, scientist, disease, accident, person, address, term age, individual, day, factor, result.

7. Read the following international words and guess their meaning: result, theory, reason, address, term, individual, dramatic, form, traumatic.

8. Read the text and get ready to discuss it

There have been several explanations put forward by psychologists for why we forget things that we used to know. We will look at a few of these theories in turn.

Amnesia

One of the most dramatic reasons for forgetting things is amnesia. It appears as a result of brain damage or disease. Some kind of accidents can mean that people don't recall things that they should be able to. And this kind of loss of memory is called amnesia. There are two kinds of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia means that a person loses his (her) memory of the events which have led up to the accident. In its most dramatic form it leads an individual to forgetting his (her) name, address and age. Most commonly, people tend to forget just the events for 10 minutes or so leading up to the accident.

Anterograde amnesia is when the individual is not able to remember things after the accident has happened. The most common form of anterograde amnesia is shown by long-term alcoholics. Although they appear normal, they are often unable to retain information. They may not remember people whom they have met only the same day.

Amnesia through the brain damage is an extreme form of forgetting, but everyday life we forget things too. When psychologists have tried to explain just how forgetting happens, they have turned to several different explanations.

Motivated forgetting

One of the earliest theories of forgetting was put forward by Sigmund Freud in 1901. He argued that all results from repression - that we forget things because in some way we are motivated to forget them. If we didn't, they would remind us of things which were deeply emotional and traumatic. Because this would be threatening to the conscious mind it is repressed, and therefore the individual "forgets" it and is unable to bring it to mind.

Although there has been a certain amount of support for the idea of motivated forgetting, very few psychologists nowadays would agree with Freud. Rather, they would regard it as one out of many ways that forgetting can happen.

Interference

Another way that forgetting can take place is by interference from another information. This can take two forms: retroactive interference and proactive interference.

Proactive interference is when one thing that we have learned interferes with the next one, such as learning a French term for something and they trying to learn the German term for it. If our learning of the German term was interfered with so that we weren't able to remember it, that would be proactive interference.

Retroactive interference is when something that we have learned interferes with something that we learned previously. So, for example, your learning of French and then German terms might mean that you couldn't remember the French one which you had learned in the first place. That would be retroactive interference.

In the 1950", many psychologists consider that interference could probably account for all cases of forgetting, but other theories have been put forward. Interference is almost certainly an important factor in forgetting, but there are some more factors.

9. Answer the following questions:

1. Who put forward one of the earliest theories of forgetting.
2. Why do we forget things according to Freud?
3. Has there been any support for the idea of motivated forgetting among scientists?
4. What is the most dramatic reason for forgetting?
5. How many types of amnesia do you know? What are they?
6. What is interference?
7. What is retroactive interference?
8. What is proactive interference?
9. Could interference account for all cases of forgetting?

10. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1. There is only one explanation of forgetting.
2. One of the most dramatic reasons for forgetting things is amnesia.
3. There are two kinds of amnesia: retroactive amnesia and proactive amnesia.
4. When a person loses his (her) memory of the events which have led up to the accident it is called retrograde amnesia.
5. Anterograde amnesia is when a person can not remember things after the accident has happened.
6. Amnesia is the result of taking wrong medicines.
7. The theory of motivated forgetting was put forward by Sigmund Freud.
8. Motivated forgetting is the result of repression of our memory.
9. Nobody supported Freud's ideas about forgetting.
10. In the 1950 many psychologists consider that forgetting can be the result of interference from other information.
11. There are two types of interference: retroactive interference and proactive interference.

11. Finish the following sentences:

1. There are several explanations of...
2. The main types of forgetting are...
3. In 1901 Sigmund Freud put forward...
4. According to Freud, we forger things because...
5. In the middle of the XX century many scientists considered that...
6. Interference can take two forms...
7. The most dramatic reason for forgetting is...
8. Amnesia is the result of...
9. There are two kinds of amnesia:...
10. Retrograde amnesia means...
11. Anterograde amnesia is when...

12. Work in groups andfind outfrom your partners:

what theories of forgetting they know;

what theory of forgetting they support and why.

13. Imagine that you are a professional psychologist studying forgetting. Choose one of the described earlier theories and speak about it

14. Find additional Information about scientists who study (studied) forgetting and present it to the group.

Lesson 5. PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION

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