The notion of Grammatical Transposition. Grammatical metaphor

I. The theory of grammatical gradation.

Modern stylistics proceeds from the nature of stylistic effect and studies the mechanism of stylistic function. The major principle of stylistic effect is the opposition between the norm and deviation from the norm (on different levels of the language).

Skrebnev describes this state as the opposition between the traditional meaning and situational meaning.

Arnold maintains that the very essence of poetic language is the violation of the norm (at all the levels of the language: phonetic, graphical, morphological, lexical, syntactical). Though: not every deviation from the norm results in expressiveness.

EX.: You do not use the article with an adverb or adjective (it would be linguistic nonsense).

Noam Chomsky formulated that rule in grammar and called it “grammatical gradation”. He constructed a scale with two poles— grammatically correct structures at one extreme point of this scale and grammatically incorrect structures at the other. The first he called grammatically marked structures, the second— unmarked structures.

Marked structures:: Unmarked structures

(Grammatically correct):: Grammatically incorrect

If we take the Russian sentence that completely agrees with the grammatical laws of this lan­guage Решил он меня обмануть and make a word for word translation into English we'll get a grammatically incorrect structure 'Decided he me to deceive. A native speaker cannot produce such a sentence because it disagrees with the basic rule of word order arrangement in English. This sentence belongs to what Chomsky calls unmarked structures.

Semi-marked structures are formed by the deviation from lexical and grammatical valency. This means that words and grammar forms carry an unusual grammatical or referential meaning. In other terms this is called “transposition” - a phenomenon that destroys customary (normal, regular, standard) valences and thus create expressiveness of the utterance.

II. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition.

Some scholars (e. g. Prof. E. I. Shendels) use the term grammatical metaphor for this kind of phenomena. We know that lexical metaphor is based on the transfer of the name of one object on to another due to some common ground. The same mechanism works in the formation of a grammatical metaphor.

So, that kind of transposition can be called Grammatical metaphor (Prof. E.I.Shendels) at the bases of the same mechanism - the transfer of the name from one object on to another.

A grammatical form as well as a lexical unit possesses a denotative and connotative meaning. There are 3 types of denotative grammatical meaning:

1. The first type reflects relations of objects in outside reality (EX.: singularity and plurality);

2. The second denotes the relation of the speaker to the first type of denotation. It shows how objective relations are perceived by reactions to the outside world (EX.: This type of denotative meaning is expressed by such categories modality, voice, definiteness and indefiniteness);

3. The third type – intralinguistic denotation - has no reference to the extra-linguistic reality. It conveys relations among linguistic units proper (EX.: the formation of the past forms of regular and irregular verbs).

According to Shendels, “grammatical metaphor is a transposition (transfer) of a grammatical form from one type of grammatical relation to another”. Thus we deal with a redistribution of grammatical and lexical meanings that create new connotations.

Types of grammatical transposition:

We may distinguish 3 types of grammatical transposition:

1. The transposition of a certain grammar form into a new syntactical distribution with a resulting effect of contrast. The so-called “Historical present” is a good illustration
of this type: a verb in the Present Indefinite form is used against the background of the Past Indefinite narration, creating the effect of vividness, an illusion of “presence”.

2. The second type of transposition involves both — the lexical and
grammatical meanings. EX.: the use of the plural form with an abstract or proper noun: “The look on her face… was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears”.

3. Transposition of classifying grammatical meanings, that brings together situationally incompatible forms—EX: the use of a common noun as a proper one = personification of inanimate objects or antonomasia. – Mr. Know-All, Mr. Truth, speaking names.

3. Functional Styles: Controversial issues.

The notion of style has to do with how we use the language under specific circumstances for a specific purpose. Linguistic literature gives various definitions of the notion 'style':

Style – socially recognized and functionally conditioned, internally united totality of the ways of using, selecting and combining the means of lingual intercourse in some national language (V.V. Vinogradov).

Style – a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication (I. R. Galperin).

Style – specific features of text type (what differentiates a group of homogeneous texts) or of a specific text (an individual text) (Skrebnev).

Functional styles are subsystems of the language and represent varieties of the norm of the national language. Their evolution and development has been determined by the specific factors of communication in various spheres of human activity. Each of them is characterised by its own parameters in vocabulary usage, syntactical expression, phraseology, etc.

The term 'functional style' reflects peculiar functions of the language in this or that type of communicative interaction.

I.R.Galperin distinguishes 5 functional styles:

1. The Belles-Lettres Style:

· poetry

· emotive prose

· the language of the drama

2. Publicist Style:

· oratory and speeches

· the essay

· articles

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