Vocabulary and grammar exercises

VOCABULARY

UNIT 1

Ex.4. Find in the TEXT English equivalents of the following Russian word-combinations.

Ex.3. Find pairs of synonyms.

1. flexible 2. to operate 3. to propose 4. to connect 5. common 6. to allow 7. area 8. to obtain 9. to concentrate 10. rail line from coast to coast 11. to remain in effect 12. fewer 13. independent wheeled undercarriage 14. to convince 15. to expand 16. rapidly 17. to carry 18. to multiply 19. major 20. roadbed

a. to suggest, to offer b. to get c. transcontinental line d. to be in use e. to grow in number f. to grow g. to work h. main i. to join, to link j. mobile k. to transport l. quickly, fast m. less in number   n. track o. to assure p. typical q. territory r. leading truck s. to come in one place t. to enable

- получить разрешение на строительство железной дороги

- поезд, имеющий паруса

- пассажирское и грузовое сообщение на паровой тяге

- колесное шасси с независимой подвеской

- локомотивы особенно маневренные на кривых

- быть сконцентрированным на Северо-востоке

- быстро расти

- главный торговый маршрут

- крупные транспортные центры

- передавать во владение федеральную землю

- привлечь переселенцев на неосвоенные территории

- убедить Конгресс

- оставаться в силе, действовать

- стальные мосты через главные реки

- предложенный маршрут

- привилегия (право) на строительство железной дороги

- правительственный заем

- неприступные Скалистые Горы

- вздымающиеся ввысь горные хребты Сьерра Невады

- железная дорога от восточного до западного побережья

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «ПС»

“TRACKS AND TRAINS”

I. TEXT
RAILROAD TRACK

The railroad is one of the most important means of transportation. Every day, thousands of trains speed along railroad tracks all over the world. Some trains carry passengers; others haul coal, grain lumber, machinery and other products on which people depend. Only ships carry heavier cargoes for longer distances; and only airplanes provide a faster means of public transportation than railroads do.

A freight train can haul thousands of tons of goods across a continent. The fastest passenger trains in regular service travel at speeds of up to 185 mph (296kmph). In test runs, these trains have reached speeds of more than 250 mph (400kmph).

Railroads use a two-railed track to guide trains along a permanent route. Powerful diesel-electric or electric locomotives move most trains along the track.

Almost every country has at least one railroad. The world’s longest rail line is situated in Russia. It extends about 5,600 miles (9,000 km) and connects Moscow and Vladivostok.

Laid end-to-end, the tracks of the world’s main railroad routes would stretch about 750,000 miles (1,200,000 km) – about 3 1/4 times the distance from the earth to the moon.

In most countries, the central government owns all or most of the railroad lines. A state agency or a government-owned corporation operates the railroads, supports them and controls their construction, repair and maintenance.

Over the years, railroads have been facing ever-increasing competition from other types of transportation. Nevertheless, railroads have always been and still remain the most important and universal mode of transport.

A railroad consists basically of a track along which locomotives pull trains of cars. The track is made up of two steel rails fastened to a series of wooden or concrete crossties. The rails and crossties that make up a railway track are laid along a roadbed – a land that has been prepared as a foundation for the track. The roadbed follows the route planned for a railroad. Main-line routes link major cities; branch lines extend between main lines and various places not served by main lines.

A lot of main lines consist of two or more tracks laid side by side. Such multiple-track allows trains to travel in opposite directions on the same line at the same time. Single-track lines must be equipped with sidings at various points along the route. A siding is a short track alongside a main or branch line to which one of two meeting trains is switched until the other train passes.

The track and roadbed, together with such other railway structures as tunnels and bridges are called the roadway. In addition to the roadway, railways own a certain amount of land on both sides of the roadway. This land and the roadway make up a railroad's right-of-way.

Nowadays, all rails are made of high quality steel. The cross-sectional area of a rail looks like letter "I" or letter "T". The rail consists of three main parts: the head (the upper part on which the wheels of the trains run), the foot (the lower part which rests upon the cross-ties), and the web (the middle part between the head and the foot). The rails are rolled in steel mills and cut in certain lengths according to the railroad standards. Steel mills in the USA and Canada produce rails in 39-ft (12-m) or 78-ft (24-m) lengths. Russia has adopted a standard rail length of 25 m on its railroads.

Rails are joined end-to-end by pieces of steel called joint bars or fishplates. The joint bars are fastened to the rails by bolts that pass through holes in the bars and in the sides of the rail. But joint bars do not join the lengths together perfectly; instead, they leave tiny gaps between the lengths. These gaps have a slightly vibrating effect on a train as it passes over them.

Many railroads in the United States, Canada, Europe, Russia, and other countries are replacing the old short-length rails with new lengths of rails, most of which measure about 1/4 mile (400 m) long. Workers weld together standard rails to make continuous welded lengths of rails. Welded rails have fewer gaps and so produce a smoother ride than rails joined in many places. Continuous welded rails are also easier for railroad work crews to maintain.

Most crossties are spaced about 20 in (0.50 m) apart. There are about 3,000 ties per mile (1,900 per km) of track.

There are two types of ties: wood ties and concrete ties. In wood ties, two steel tie plates are placed on top of each tie, one plate near each end of the tie. Each plate has a groove that is shaped to hold the bottom of the rail. Steel spikes are driven through holes in the plates. The spikes hook over the bottom of the rail and keep it firmly fastened to the tie. In the mid-1900's, railroads began to use concrete ties. Concrete crossties do not need plates and spikes. Instead, plastic pads are used, and two steel bolts with spring clips hold the base of the rail firmly to the tie.

The spikes or bolts must be the same distance apart on every tie so that they hold the rails the same distance apart all along the track. This uniform distance between the rails is called the gauge. Every country has a standard gauge for all its main lines and most branch lines. In this way, any locomotive or car can travel on any track in the country. But the standard gauge varies from country to country. The USA, Canada, and most European countries have a standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m). Russian railroads use the standard gauge that equals 1.52 m.

In building a roadbed, engineers use special instruments and machinery to make the land as smooth and level as possible. This process is called grading. Most roadbeds are then covered with a layer of ballast, which consists of such materials as crushed stone and gravel. Ballast holds the ties in place and so helps to keep the track stable. Ballast also helps to distribute the weight of passing trains and gives them a certain degree of cushioning. Trains thus ride more easily and passengers receive more comfort. Ballast also promotes drainage of rainwater and slows the growth of weeds.

Before constructing the roadbed, engineers plan a route with the least possible grade and curvature. Grade refers to the steepness of the land; curvature refers to the number and sharpness of curves along the route. The ideal railroad route lies across perfectly flat land. Freight trains can carry heavy loads along such track without difficulty, and passenger trains can travel at top speeds. Steep grades, on the other hand, prevent trains from carrying heavy loads or moving at high speeds. If a route passes through hilly or mountainous territory, engineers lay the track around steep grades. The track thus has many curves, which reduce the speeds of trains but allow them to carry heavy loads.

A route through a mountain range might require so many curves that moving along the line would be extremely slow. Engineers therefore often build railroad tunnels through the mountains. They also build railroad bridges to span some of the deepest valleys. Tunnels and bridges are also constructed to extend railroad routes under or across rivers and other water obstacles.

1. transportation – перевозка; транспорт

means of ~ – средство ~

2. route – маршрут, трасса, путь

railroad ~ – железнодорожный ~

permanent ~ – постоянный ~

3. track – путь

railroad ~ – железнодорожный ~

to lay the ~ – прокладывать ~

to repair the ~ – ремонтировать ~

to maintain the ~ – содержать ~

4. rails – рельсы

steel ~ – стальные ~

standard ~ – стальные ~

continuous welded ~ – без стыковые, сварные ~

length of ~ – плеть ~

head of a ~ – головка ~

foot of a ~ – основание ~

web of a ~ – шейка ~

to roll ~ – прокатывать ~

gaps between the ~ – зазор между ~

cross-sectional area of a ~ – поперечное сечение ~

5. ties – шпалы

wood ~ – деревянные ~

concrete ~ – бетонные ~

~ plates – рельсовые подкладки

6. fishplates – стыковые накладки

7. spikes – костыли

steel ~ – стальные ~

8. spring clip – пружинный рельсовый зажим

9. gauge – колея

10. ballast – балласт

crushed stone ~ – щебеночный ~

gravel ~ – гравийный ~

11. cushioning – амортизация

12. drainage – дренаж, отведение воды

13. roadbed – основание пути

14. roadway – железнодорожное полотно

15. line – линия

main ~ – магистральная ~

branch ~ – ветка

single-track ~ – однопутная ~

multiple-track ~ – многопутная ~

16. siding – разъезд

17. right-of-way – полоса отвода железной дороги

18. grades – уклоны

19. curves – кривые

20. obstacles – препятствия

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